From Xi’s China to Macron’s France: The emergence of new-era ‘Leviathans’ (2024)

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Thomas Hobbes’ seminal work, Leviathan, published in 1651, posits the necessity of a powerful, centralised authority to prevent societal chaos and ensure peace and security. Hobbes had a way with words; he famously said that without an all-powerful state, whom he calls the Leviathan, life would be nasty, brutish, and short.

Those powerful words have a global resonance today, giving the state across the world a free run.

We saw it in Washington when more than $3 trillion was printed in monetary easing. In Paris, monetary welfare spending is out of hand, and the Leviathan dares not withdraw the free fund, for that itself causes riots and chaos. In China, state capitalism is running wild, and in India, the state subsidies everything from fertiliser and maternity care to free food to the tune of $10 billion a year.

Everywhere, a man who wrote 350 years ago rules. In our turbulent world, Hobbes’s premise of avoiding chaos is so powerful that both autocracies and democracies are utilising it to empower the state further.

It is not as if he has not been proved right. In fact, rarely in contemporary history has Hobbes gone wrong. In Iraq, Libya, and Egypt, when the Leviathan was toppled, it created chaos beyond imagination, only to be replaced by the iron fist of the state.

In China, the fear of chaos that can come from within and from without is a central rationale that legitimises Xi Jinping’s power grab. Indeed, it’s replacing the promise of prosperity as the basis of the communist party’s hold over China.

The fact that the Federal Reserve’s policy of quantitative easing following the 2008 financial crisis and the purchase of government securities to increase the money supply were unquestioned exemplifies Hobbes’ idea of the sovereign exercising control to prevent economic disorder and maintain stability. That, in the bastion of capitalism, it did not raise concerns about the erosion of financial autonomy and the distortion of free markets underlines the astonishing relevance of Hobbes.

France’s robust welfare state epitomises Hobbes’ notion of the sovereign’s responsibility to ensure the well-being of its citizens. The French government maintains an extensive social safety net, including comprehensive healthcare, unemployment benefits, and retirement pensions. During the COVID-19 pandemic, France’s welfare spending surged as the government implemented measures to protect jobs and support incomes. However, this extensive welfare system can be critiqued for fostering dependency and reducing individual responsibility. The welfare-to-GDP ratio in 2023 was an astonishing 36 per cent. This is clearly unsustainable, but every time France has tried to pull back the Leviathan or cut back welfare, there have been dramatic riots. Once you create the Leviathan, clearly, there is no way back.

In 2020, the French government introduced the ‘Solidarity Fund’, providing financial aid to businesses affected by the pandemic, and expanded unemployment benefits to cover those furloughed under the ‘partial activity’ scheme. These interventions, amounting to over €100 billion in expansive welfare spending, can lead to high taxation, which burdens individuals and businesses, and totally stifles entrepreneurial spirit and innovation. Additionally, the extensive welfare system creates a culture of dependency, reducing the incentive for personal initiative and self-reliance. France and its Leviathan are in a doom loop.

China’s model of state capitalism illustrates Hobbes’ concept of the sovereign’s expansive control over economic life. The Chinese government exercises significant influence over the economy through state-owned enterprises (SOEs), which dominate key industries such as energy, telecommunications, and finance. While this control allows the state to direct economic development and maintain social order, it also restricts economic freedom and individual rights.

The role of SOEs in China’s economic strategy is particularly evident in the “Made in China 2025” initiative, aimed at transforming China into a global leader in high-tech industries. The state provides substantial funding and policy support to SOEs to achieve this goal, highlighting the government’s central role in economic planning and development. Critics argue that this model of state capitalism stifles competition, limits private sector growth, and imposes significant restrictions on individual economic freedoms. Furthermore, the close ties between the state and business can lead to corruption and cronyism, undermining the rule of law and individual rights.

With Leviathan back with a vengeance, get ready for the disappearance of the individual. Distortion of personal and financial freedoms. Hobbes’ vision of the sovereign as the ultimate arbiter of order and security is trampling forth with the autonomy and freedoms of individuals in a modern society. The super-state is the new normal.

The writer is a senior journalist with expertise in defence. Views expressed in the above piece are personal and solely those of the author. They do not necessarily reflect Firstpost’s views.

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