Journal articles: 'North American F-86 Sabre' – Grafiati (2024)

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El articulo adopta una perspectiva histórica y crítica con relación al modelo hegemónico de salud mental, centrado en la necesidad de restaurar farmacológicamente un desequilibrio neuroquímico. En el campo de la psiquiatría parece haber un amplio acuerdo en defender la tesis según la cual, entre los años 1952 y 1954, con el descubrimiento del primer neuroléptico, la Clorpromazina, se iniciaría un proceso de radical transformación del saber psiquiátrico. En el año 1954, el laboratorio norte americano Smith, Kline & French (SK&F), hoy Glaxo Smith, compró la patente para comercializar esa droga en los Estados Unidos. Analizo la campaña publicitaria dirigida a las mujeres. La publicidad de esta potente droga psiquiátrica, a lo largo de las décadas de 1950 y 1960, permite entender la perspectiva de género existente en la industria farmacéutica y el papel de los neurolépticos en la gestión de la feminidad.

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Ralph Lee Woodward, Jr., Central America: A Nation Divided. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985. Pp. 390. Cloth, $22.50; Paper $8.95. Second Edition. Review by Donald J. Mabry of Mississippi State University. Edward M. Anson. A Civilization Primer. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1985. Pp. 121. Spiral bound, $5.95. Review by Gordon R. Mork of Purdue University. Stephen J. Lee. Aspects of European History, 1494-1789. Second edition. London & New York: Methuen, 1984. Pp. viii, 312. Paper, $11.95. Review by Michael W. Howell of The School of the Ozarks. Roland N. Stromberg. European Intellectual History Since 1789. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1986. Fourth edition. Pp. x, 340. Paper, $18.95. Review by Irby C. Nichols, Jr. of North Texas State University. R. W. Southern. Medieval Humanism and Other Studies. New York: Basil Blackwell, 1985. Pp. 261. Cloth, $24.95; Paper, $10.95. Review by Benjamin F. Taggie of Central Michigan University. H. T. Dickinson. British Radicalism and the French Revolution, 1789-1815. New York: Basil Blackwell, 1985. Pp. 88. Paper, $6.95; F. D. Dow. Radicalism in the English Revolution, 1640-1660. New York: Basil Blackwell, 1985. Pp. 90. Paper, $6.95. Review by Harry E. Wade of East Texas State University. H. R. Kedward. Occupied France: Collaboration and Resistance 1940-1944. New York: Basil Blackwell, 1985. Pp. 88. $6.95; M. E. Chamberlain. Decolonization: The Fall of the European Empire. New York: Basil Blackwell, 1985. Pp. 86. $6.95. Review by Steven Philip Kramer of the University of New Mexico. Harriet Ward. World Powers in the Twentieth Century. London: British Broadcasting Corporation and the Heinemann Educational Books, 1985. Second edition. Pp. xvii, 333. Paper, $12.00. Review by Gerald H. Davis of Georgia State University. Paul Preston, ed. Revolution and War in Spain, 1931-1939. London and New York: Methuen, 1984. Pp. xi, 299. Cloth, $29.95: Paper, $12.95. Review by Robert Kern of the University of New Mexico. Glenn Blackburn. The West and the World Since 1945. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1985. Pp. vi, 152. Paper, $9.95. Review by Victoria L. Enders of Northern Arizona University. M. K. Dziewanowski. A History of Soviet Russia. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1985. Second edition. Pp. x, 406. Paper, $22.95. Review by Elizabeth J. Wilcoxson of Northern Essex Community College. Peter L. Steinberg. The Great "Red Menace": United States Prosecution of American Communists, 1947-1952. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1984. Pp. xiv, 311. Cloth, $35.00. Review by Kenneth G. Alfers of Mountain View College. Winthrop D. Jordan, Leon F. Litwack, Richard Hoftstadter, William Miller, Daniel Aaron. The United States: Brief Edition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1985. Second Edition. Pp. xiv, 513. Paper, $19.95. Review by Richard A. Diem of The University of Texas at San Antonio. Edwin J. Perkins and Gary M. Walton. A Prosperous People: The Growth of the American Economy. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1985. Pp. xiii, 240. Paper, $14.95. Review by Larry Madaras of Howard Community College.

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Robert William Fogel and G. R. Elton. Which Road to the Past? Two Views of History. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1983. Pp. vii, 136. Cloth, $14.95. Review by Stephen Kneeshaw of The School of the Ozarks. Emmanuel LeRoy Ladurie. The Mind and Method of the Historian. Translated by Sian Reynolds and Ben Reynolds. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981. Pp. v, 310. Paper, $9.95. Review by Richard Harvey of Ohio University. John E. O'Connor, ed. American History/ American Television: Interpreting the Video Past. New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing Company, 1983. Pp. 463. Cloth, $17.50; Paper, $8.95. Review by D' Ann Campbell of Indiana University. Foster Rhea Dulles & Melvyn Dubofsky. Labor in America: A History. Arlington Heights, Illinois: Harlan Davidson, Inc., 1984. 4th edition. Pp. ix, 425. Cloth, $25.95. Paper, $15.95. Review by Robert W. Dubay of Bainbridge Junior College. Karen Ordahl Kupperman. Roanoke: The Abandoned Colony. Totowa, New Jersey: Rowman & Allanheld, 1984. Pp. viii, 182. Cloth, $24.95; Paper, $12.50. Review by John T. Reilly of Mount Saint Mary College. Kevin O'Reilly. Critical Thinking in American History: Exploration to Constitution. South Hamilton, Massachusetts: Hamilton-Wenham Regional High School, 1983. Pp. 86. Paper, $2.95. Teacher's Guides: Pp. 180. Paper, $12.95; Kevin O'Reilly. Critical Thinking in American History: New Republic to Civil War. South Hamilton, Massachusetts: Hamilton-Wenham Regional High School, 1984. Pp. 106. Paper, $2.95. Teacher's Guide: Pp. 190. Paper, $12.95. Review by James F. Marran of New Trier Township High School, Winnetka, Illinois. Michael J. Cassity, ed. Chains of Fear: American Race Relations Since Reconstruction. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1984. Pp. xxxv, 253. Cloth, $35.00. Review by Ann W. Ellis of Kennesaw College. L. P. Morris. Eastern Europe Since 1945. London and Exeter, New Hampshire: Heinemann Educational Books, 1984. Pp. 211. Paper, $10.00. Review by Thomas T. Lewis, Mount Senario College. John Marks. Science and the Making of the Modern World. Portsmouth, New Hampshire: Heinemann Educational Books, Inc., 1983. Pp. xii, 507. Paper, $25.00. Review by Howard A. Barnes of Winston-Salem State University. Kenneth G. Alfers, Cecil Larry Pool, William F. Mugleston, eds. American's Second Century: Topical Readings, 1865-Present. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/ Hunt Publishing Co., 1984. Pp. viii, 381. Paper, $8.95. Review by Richard D. Schubart of Phillips Exeter Academy. Sam C. Sarkesian. America's Forgotten Wars: The Counterrevoltuionary Past and Lessons for the Future. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1984. Pp. xiv, 265. Cloth, $29.95. Review by Richard Selcer of Mountain View College. Edward Wagenknecht. Daughters of the Covenant: Portraits of Six Jewish Women. Amherst: University of Massachusetts, 1983. Pp. viii, 192. Cloth, $17.50. Review by Abraham D. Kriegel of Memphis State University. Morton Borden. Jews, Turks, and Infidels. Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 1984. Pp. x, 163. Cloth, $17.95. Review by Raymond J. Jirran of Thomas Nelson Community College. Richard Schlatter, ed. Recent Views on British History: Essays on Historical Writing Since 1966. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1984. Pp. xiii, 524. Cloth, $50.00. Review by Fred R. van Hartesveldt of Fort Valley State College. Simon Hornblower. The Greek World, 479-323 B.C. London and New York: Methuen, 1983. Pp. xi, 354. Cloth, $24.00; Paper, $11.95. Review by Dan Levinson of Thayer Academy, Braintree, Massachusetts. H. R. Kedward. Resistance in Vichy France. New York: Oxford University Press, 1978. Paper edition 1983. Pp. ix, 311. Paper, $13.95. Review by Sanford J. Gutman of the State University of New York at Cortland.

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Seven races have been described in the Ug99 race group of Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici (2). Ug99-related races previously recorded in South Africa are TTKSF, TTKSP, and PTKST (4). In December 2010, severe stem rust infection of the winter wheat cv. Matlabas was observed for the first time in South Africa. Race analysis using the 20 North American (NA) stem rust differential lines and letter code system classified the race as TTKSF. In comparative infection studies in a greenhouse, cv. Matlabas seedlings were susceptible (infection type [IT] 4) to isolate UVPgt61/1 (TTKSF+) collected from Afrikaskop in the eastern Free State, whereas the cultivar was resistant (IT 1 to 2) to stem rust isolates 2013 (TTKSF), UVPgt55 (TTKSF), UVPgt59 (TTKSP), and UVPgt60 (PTKST). Isolate 2013 represents the original collection of race TTKSF in South Africa (1). In addition to the NA differentials, no variation in the IT range of seedlings of lines with Sr7a, 8b, 12, 13, 14, 16, 18, 19, 22, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 32, 33, 34, 35, 39, 41, 42, 43, 44, Em, R, Tt2, and Satu was observed between UVPgt61/1 and UVPgt55. With the exception of cv. Matlabas, ITs of 106 South African cultivars likewise did not differentiate UVPgt61/1 and UVPgt55. Seedling IT studies were conducted at least twice. Microsatellite analysis (4) showed that all single pustule isolates established from the original Matlabas isolate formed part of the Ug99 group. When characterized with selected single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), all single pustule isolates shared an identical genotype that differed from UVPgt55 (TTKSF), a foreign introduction into South Africa (1,3). SNP genotype analysis suggests that UVPgt61/1 is genetically dissimilar to UVPgt55, as is Zim1009, another TTKSF+ isolate that was collected from Birchenough in Zimbabwe. Studies are underway to determine the identity of the defeated Sr gene in Matlabas and the cultivar has been added to the South African stem rust differential set. TTKSF+ is the eighth race detected in the Ug99 group. Since no other cultivars or advanced lines were found to carry the Matlabas gene, it is unlikely that race TTKSF+ will threaten wheat production in South Africa. However, the occurrence of a new Ug99-related race emphasizes the variability within this internationally important group. References: (1) W. H. P. Boshoff et al. Plant Dis. 86:922, 2002. (2) R. F. Park et al. Euphytica 179:109, 2011. (3) B. Visser et al. Mol. Plant Pathol. 10:213, 2009. (4) B. Visser et al. Euphytica 179:119, 2011.

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Abstract Granulocyte reactive antibodies have been found to cause clinical disorders such as transfusion related acute lung injury (TRALI), febrile transfusion reactions, alloimmune neonatal neutropenia, immune neutropenia after bone marrow transplantation, refractoriness to granulocyte transfusion, drug-induced neutropenia and autoimmune neutropenia. Using the granulocyte immunofluorescence test (GIFT) by microscopic and flow cytometric analysis, the frequencies of the neutrophil antigens HNA−1a, −1b, −2a, −3a and −4a were determined among 100 random Brazilian blood donors from the Blood Center of Universidade Federal de Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil. Granulocytes were separated from mononuclear cells and red cells by sedimentation with 5% dextran, followed by centrifugation on Ficoll-paque (d = 1.077), and then incubated with anti-sera (anti-HNA−1a, −1b, −2a, −3a, and −4a obtained from American Red Cross, North Central Blood Services, St. Paul, MN) conjugated with fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) labeled F(ab’)2 fragments of anti-human IgG. Only cell suspensions containing ≥95% neutrophils with viability ≥90% according to the trypan-blue staining were analyzed. The frequencies of HNA−1a, −1b and −2a were 65%, 83% and 94%, respectively, and for such alloantigens exact same results were observed using either the GIFT performed by microscopy or by flow cytometry. The frequency of HNA-3a was 86% by the microscopic GIFT, and 95% by the flow cytometry analysis; while the frequency of HNA−4a was 93% by the microscopic GIFT, and 94% by the flow cytometric technique. These results indicate that: GIFT by flow cytometry is more sensitive than the GIFT by microscopy to detect HNA−3a; the phenotypic frequencies found for neutrophil antigens HNA−1a and −1b among Brazilian blood donors are quite similar to those reported among African Americans, but different from those reported for Japanese and Chinese individuals; the phenotype frequencies of the neutrophil antigens HNA−2a, −3a, and −4a in Brazilians are quite similar to those found among Caucasians (Table). (These studies were funded by FAPESP, SP, Brazil - 05/55237–9). Asians Brazilians Antigen African Americans Chineses Hindus Japaneses Caucasians M FC M, microscopy; FC, flow cytometry; nd, not done HNA-1a 46 – 68 90 44 88 52 – 54 65 65 HNA-1b 78 – 84 52 83 51 – 64 87 – 89 83 83 HNA-2a nd 99 nd 89 87 – 97 94 94 HNA-3a nd nd nd nd 99 86 95 HNA-4a nd nd nd nd 96 93 94

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Fusarium dry rot is one of the most important diseases of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.), affecting tubers in storage and whole seed or seed pieces after planting (2). Fusarium sambucinum f*ckel (teleomorph Giberella pulicaris) is the most common pathogen causing dry rot of stored tubers in North America. (4). Cut seed potato tubers of cvs. FL1879 and Pike with severe sprout rot were collected in Michigan during May 2006. As well as having rotted sprouts, all diseased tubers had dry rot. When diseased sprouts were cut in half, brown, necrotic lesions could be seen spreading down the center of the sprout in vascular tissue and at the base of the sprout in tuber tissue. Pathogen isolations were made from both infected tuber tissue and diseased sprouts on potato dextrose agar (PDA). In both cases, only F. sambucinum was isolated from diseased sprout and tuber tissue. Identification of the pathogen was based on colony and conidial morphology. This included white, fluffy mycelium on the surface and crimson coloration of the colonies viewed from the underside of PDA plates and large distinctive macroconidia (3). Identification was confirmed by comparison of ITS (internal transcribed spacer) sequence data with reference isolates. The ITS region of rDNA was amplified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) with primers ITS1/ITS4 and sequenced. BLASTn analysis (1) of the sequence obtained showed a 100% hom*ology with F. sambucinum f*ckel. For inoculum production, isolates were grown on PDA at 8°C for 14 days prior to inoculation. Pathogenicity was tested in potato tubers of cv. FL1879 with a single isolate collected from diseased sprouts. Whole seed tubers with 4 mm long sprouts were cut in half longitudinally with a sterile knife to ensure that seed pieces had viable sprouts. The cut surfaces of seed pieces were spray inoculated with 200 ml of conidial suspension (1 × 104 conidia ml-1) over the entire cut surface to give a final dosage of approximately 1 ml per seed piece. Care was taken to limit inoculum spray to the cut surface so that sprouts were not inoculated. Seed pieces (40 per replicate × 4 replicates) were then placed in plastic boxes (30 × 15 × 10 cm) and incubated in the dark at 18°C and 95% relative humidity for 30 days in a controlled environment chamber. As a control, cut seed pieces were spayed with sterile distilled water and incubated as above. All tubers inoculated with the pathogen developed typical Fusarium dry rot symptoms consisting of a brown, dry decay of tuber tissue with mycelial lined cavities. Sprouts on inoculated tubers developed symptoms that were observed in the initially collected seed pieces, and F. sambucinum was reisolated from all infected sprouts. The noninoculated control tubers did not develop any symptoms of dry rot. The results of the pathogenicity tests indicate that F. sambucinum caused sprout rot on potato seed pieces. Since only the cut surfaces of tubers were inoculated, it is assumed that infection of sprouts is systemic through the tuber. To our knowledge, this is the first report of F. sambucinum causing a sprout rot of developing sprouts on seed tubers in the United States. References: (1) S. F. Altschul et al. Nucleic Acids Res. 25:3389, 1997. (2) L. E. Hanson et al. Phytopathology 86:378, 1996. (3) P. E. Nelson et al. Pages 118–119 in: Fusarium Species: An Illustrated Manual for Identification. The Pennsylvania State University, University Park and London, 1983. (4) G. A. Secor and B. Salas. Fusarium dry rot and Fusarium wilt. Pages 23–25 in: Compendium of Potato Diseases. 2nd ed. W. R. Stevenson et al., eds. The American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, MN, 2001.

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O número 4 de 2016 (volume 6) da Revista Eletrônica Debates em Educação Científica e Tecnológica reúne artigos e ensaios sobre a educação e o ensino produzidos em um dos seis eixos dessa revista científica, a saber: (a) Ensino de Ciências e Matemática; (b) Ensino de Humanidades; (c) Formação Inicial e Continuada de Professores da Educação Básica; (d) Tecnologias Educacionais e Recursos Didáticos; (e) Educação Profissional e Tecnológica; e (f) Diversidades e Inclusão Social. Os artigos tratam de propostas inovadoras de ensino, estudos sobre tecnologias educacionais e formação de professores no contexto da educação básica. Alguns dos trabalhos foram realizados em programas de pós-graduação stricto sensu da área de Ensino e da Educação, desenvolvidos tanto no âmbito nacional como, também, internacional. Também, a revista DECT está cadastrada no sistema Diadorim (Brasil) e já se encontra no banco de dados do Google Acadêmico, o que melhorou o processo de busca dos artigos nos aplicativos como Google, Bing e Yahoo. Por conta da organização da revista, no ano de 2015, esta revista foi atribuída ao Qualis B1 da Capes, na área de Ensino. A colaboração de professores do Programa de Pós-graduação em Educação em Ciências e Matemática (Educimat), do Programa de Pós-graduação em Ensino de Humanidades (PPGEH) e do Programa de Pós-graduação em Rede Nacional de Educação Profissional e Tecnológica (PROFEPT), todos da área 46 da CAPES – Ensino, propiciou a revista a ampliação de sua abordagem na educação, passando a abordar estudos sobre metodologias educacionais, teorias de aprendizagem, formação de professores, uso de espaços de educação não formal, práticas pedagógicas abordando sustentabilidade, diversidades e inclusão social no contexto do ensino de história, geografia, filosofia, sociologia, artes e línguas, todos no campo da educação científica e tecnológica. Neste número, parte dos artigos veio do 5º Congresso Ibero-Americano em Investigação Qualitativa, em Porto – Portugal, nas instalações da Universidade Lusófona de Porto (ULP), de 12 a 14 de julho de 2016, além de outros artigos submetidos no portal da Revista DECT em 2016. A presença de alguns investigadores das áreas de Educação e Ensino produziu articulações que impactaram a nova abordagem da Revista Eletrônica DECT, ampliando os horizontes dos estudos científicos e tecnológicos. A criação os programas da área de ensino, em conjunto com alguns outros situados em áreas na fronteira do conhecimento, como o Programa de Ensino de Física (Campus Cariacica), Programa de Ensino de Letras (Campus Vitória) e o Programa de Ensino de Química (Campus Vila Velha), todos do Ifes, compôs um excelente contributo para o Estado do Espírito Santo, ampliando a formação de pessoas qualificadas para pensar, planejar e executar projetos voltados para a educação básica e a formação de professores, sobretudo, para as regiões norte e sul do estado do Estado do Espírito Santo, norte do Rio de Janeiro, Sul da Bahia e este do Estado do Minas Gerais. Agradecemos a colaboração do Comitê Científico e dos Consultores ad hoc que dedicaram um pouco de seu tempo na avaliação dos artigos. Esperamos que os leitores aproveitem este número da Revista Eletrônica Debates em Educação Científica e Tecnológica.

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Em agosto de 2011, o Programa de Pós-graduação em Educação em Ciências e Matemática (Educimat) iniciou suas atividades após aprovação da CAPES na área de Ensino (área 46) desenvolvendo estudos sobre metodologias educacionais, teorias de aprendizagem, formação de professores, uso de espaços de educação não formal, práticas pedagógicas abordando sustentabilidade, diversidades e inclusão social no contexto da educação básica, história e memórias de práticas e pessoas relacionadas ao ensino de ciências da natureza e matemática. Já em fevereiro de 2016, imbuídos do espírito contagiante do Programa Educimat, um grupo de professores iniciou um projeto pedagógico voltado para o ensino de humanidades – nasceu o Programa de Pós-graduação em Ensino de Humanidades (PPGEH) também da área 46 da CAPES, área de Ensino. Da mesma forma que o Educimat aborda o contexto da educação científica, o PPGEH aborda estudos sobre metodologias educacionais, teorias de aprendizagem, formação de professores, uso de espaços de educação não formal, práticas pedagógicas abordando sustentabilidade, diversidades e inclusão social no contexto do ensino de história, geografia, filosofia, sociologia, artes e línguas. A presença de alguns investigadores nas duas áreas Ensino desenvolvidas nos programa Educimat e PPGEH, produziram articulações impactaram na visão da Revista Eletrônica DECT, a qual muito gentilmente abraçou o horizonte de estudos científicos e tecnológicos no campo do ensino de humanidades. A criação desses dois programas foi uma conquista do Ifes e do Estado do Espírito Santo, para ampliar a formação de pessoas qualificadas e mentes criativas para pensar, planejar e executar projetos voltados para a educação básica e a formação de professores, sobretudo, para as regiões norte e sul do estado do Estado do Espírito Santo, norte do Rio de Janeiro, Sul da Bahia e nordeste do Estado do Minas Gerais. O número 1 de 2016 (volume 6) da Revista Eletrônica Debates em Educação Científica e Tecnológica reúne artigos que tratam de propostas inovadoras de ensino, estudos sobre tecnologias educacionais e formação de professores no contexto da educação básica. Uma parte dos artigos desse número é remanescente da apresentação de trabalhos completos no 6o Simpósio Educação e Comunicação, realizado durante o 4º Congresso Ibero-Americano em Investigação Qualitativa, em Aracaju – Brasil, nas instalações da UTiradentes, de 5 a 7 de agosto de 2015, além de outros artigos submetidos no portal da Revista DECT em 2015. Alguns dos trabalhos foram realizados em programas de pós-graduação stricto sensu da área de Ensino e da Educação, desenvolvidos tanto em instituições nacionais como, também, em instituições internacionais. No ano de 2016, a Revista DECT aumentou a sua periodicidade passando a ser trimestral, com números em março, junho, setembro e dezembro. Os trabalhos reúnem artigos científicos (empírico, experimental ou teórico) e ensaios, concentrados em seis eixos da revista científica, a saber: (a) Ensino de Ciências e Matemática; (b) Ensino de Humanidades; (c) Formação Inicial e Continuada de Professores da Educação Básica; (d) Tecnologias Educacionais e Recursos Didáticos; (e) Educação Profissional e Tecnológica; e (f) Diversidades e Inclusão Social. Também cadastramos a revista DECT no sistema Diadorim (Brasil) e já se encontra no banco de dados do Google Acadêmico, para melhorar o processo de busca por artigos nos aplicativos como Google, Bing e Yahoo. Agradecemos a colaboração do Comitê Científico e dos Consultores ad hoc que dedicaram um pouco de seu tempo na avaliação dos artigos. Esperamos que os leitores aproveitem este número da Revista Eletrônica Debates em Educação Científica e Tecnológica.

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Wild populations of fishing cats (Prionailurus viverrinus) in Southeast Asia are in decline, primarily due to habitat loss. Because the fishing cat population in North American zoos is small (n = 69) and inbred (F = 0.17) with relatively low genetic variation (86%), infusion of new founder genes from Asia is a conservation priority. Importation of cryopreserved sem*n for use with IVF and ET may offer one alternative to the international transport of living animals. In this study, our objectives were to (1) compare motility longevity of fresh vs. frozen-thawed fishing cat spermatozoa in two culture media, (2) evaluate ovarian responses to exogenous gonadotropins, and (3) assess development of IVF embryos produced with fresh vs. frozen-thawed spermatozoa. Raw sem*n was collected via electroejacul*tion from male fishing cats (n = 4), divided into groups, and washed. Two sperm pellets were resuspended in either Ham's F10 medium (HF10; with 5% FBS) or our feline optimized culture medium (FOCM; with 0.4% BSA); another pellet was diluted in TEST egg yolk, cooled to 5�C over 3 h, glycerated (4%), and cryopreserved in straws over LN2 vapor. Frozen sperm samples were thawed, washed, and diluted in either HF10 or FOCM. Fresh and frozen-thawed sperm motility (percent motile, rate of forward progress) in each medium (10 � 106 motile sperm/mL) was assessed (at 0, 1, 3, and 6 h) in microdrops under oil during culture (38�C; 6% CO2 in air). Female fishing cats (n = 10) were treated with exogenous gonadotropins (150 IU eCG, 100 IU hCG, 85-h interval) and ovarian follicles were aspirated laparoscopically. Recovered oocytes were inseminated with fresh (2 � 105 motile sperm/mL) or frozen-thawed (5 � 105 motile sperm/mL) spermatozoa in FOCM microdrops; resulting embryos were either cryopreserved or cultured in FOCM (with 5% FBS added at 72 h post-insemination) for 7 days. Sperm motility over time did not differ (P > 0.05) between media for either fresh or frozen-thawed samples; however, across media, frozen-thawed sperm motility was lower (P < 0.05) and declined faster (P < 0.05) compared to fresh spermatozoa. Females produced an average (�SEM) of 9.8 � 2.9 mature ovarian follicles, allowing recovery of 7.3 � 2.6 high-quality oocytes per female. Oocyte cleavage percentage at 42 h p.i. was lower (P < 0.05) with frozen-thawed spermatozoa (38%, 11/29) compared to freshly collected spermatozoa (68%, 17/25). Overall, 35% (6/17) of cultured embryos developed to blastocysts with no difference (P > 0.05) between embryos produced with frozen-thawed (4/11) vs. fresh (2/6) spermatozoa. Although fishing cat sperm motility and fertility appear compromised after cryopreservation, our results demonstrate the ability of frozen-thawed spermatozoa to produce IVF embryos that are capable of developing to blastocyst stage in vitro. This work was supported by (NIH RR015388).

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Brown root rot (BRR) has been associated with winterkill of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) in the temperate regions of North America where winters are severe (1). Although suspected, BRR has not been associated with winterkill of alfalfa in the upper Midwestern United States. Alfalfa plants exhibiting symptoms resembling those induced by the causal agent Phoma sclerotioides G. Preuss ex Sacc. were collected from fields in Marinette, Pierce, and Marathon counties in Wisconsin during the spring and early summer of 2003. Symptoms included stunting and decline in 1- to 3-year-old plants that were slow to break dormancy in the early spring. Roots frequently exhibited dark brown lesions or were entirely decayed. Advanced lesions often formed dark bands around the circumference of tap and secondary roots. Beaked pycnidial structures typical of P. sclerotioides were also observed on many samples with advanced lesions. Plants with symptoms of BRR were also observed in Clark, Langlade, Lincoln, Oconto, Shawno, Taylor, and Wood counties. Several lesion areas of tissue on the tap and lateral roots of each sample were excised with a sterile scalpel. Total DNA was extracted using the Fast DNA kit (Bio 101, Carlsbad, CA). In addition, soil samples were collected in the root rhizosphere of symptomatic plants from four fields in two counties. Soil DNA was extracted with the Ultra-Clean DNA soil extraction kit (Mo Bio, Solana Beach, CA). DNA extractions were diluted 1:10 or 1:50, and samples were evaluated for the presence of P. sclerotioides using polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based sequence-characterized amplified region (SCAR) markers according to the method described previously (4). Amplicons of the expected size (499 bp) were detected from alfalfa roots sampled from Marathon (4 of 4), Marinette (4 of 5), and Pierce (4 of 4) counties but not in roots from healthy controls produced in the greenhouse at Prosser, WA. PCR amplicons were also produced from all field soil samples in Marathon and Marinette counties. Proof of pathogenicity via Koch's postulates for this host-pathogen system was not attempted because of the extensive time period required (1). However, characteristic beaked pycnidia were present, and the pathogen was identified using PCR on DNA from roots symptomatic of BRR. Detection of BRR has been limited in the United States to Wyoming (2), but has been thought to occur in other states with severe winters (3). To our knowledge, this is the first report of P. sclerotioides in Wisconsin. References: (1) J. G. N. Davidson. Brown root rot. Pages 29–31 in: Compendium of Alfalfa Diseases. 2nd ed. D. L. Stuteville and D. C. Erwin, eds. The American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, MN, 1990. (2) F. A. Gray et al. Pages 27–28 in: Proc. 10th Western Alfalfa Improv. Conf., 1997. (3) C. R. Hollingsworth et al. Can. J Plant Pathol. 25:215, 2003. (4) R. C. Larsen et al. Plant Dis. 86:928, 2002.

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Introdução: A atenção odontológica é de suma importância para conscientização dos pais sobre a saúde bucal do seu filho desde os primeiros meses de vida, ressaltando informações sobre a higienização bucal, dieta alimentar e hábitos parafuncionais. Objetivos: avaliar o conhecimento de pais e/ou responsáveis de crianças na primeira infância quanto a conduta diária de higienização de seus filhos. Metodologia: foi aplicado um questionário com perguntas objetivas sobre o conhecimento dos hábitos de higiene bucal em relação ao seu filho em cinco creches que atendem crianças de 0-4 anos. Os dados foram tabulados no programa Microsoft Excel ®2016 e os resultados obtidos por uma análise descritiva e quantitativa. Resultados: Dos pais e/ou responsáveis entrevistados, todos relataram saber da importância da dentição decídua e 97% sabiam o que era doença cárie dentária. Quanto a escovação, 98% das crianças fazem diariamente, no entanto apenas 55% dessas crianças os pais auxiliam nessa escovação e somente 34% realizam três vezes ao dia. Todos os entrevistados afirmaram ter ciência da importância da dentição decídua e 50% responderam que a criança deve ir ao dentista pela primeira vez no momento que irrompe o primeiro dente na cavidade bucal. Conclusão: Dessa forma, conclui-se que, o conhecimento dos pais e/ou responsáveis sobre a importância da higienização bucal é fundamental, pois práticas simples de prevenção possibilitam o desenvolvimento da dentição decídua saudável, no entanto essas informações precisam ser passadas aos responsáveis. Descritores: Saúde Bucal; Assistência Odontológica; Higiene Bucal. Referências Lunt RC, Law DB. A review of the chronology of eruption of deciduous teeth. J Am Dent Assoc. 1974;89(4):872-9. Figueiredo JR. A odontopediatria e suas relações. Rev Racine. 1998;42:22-5. Brasil, Ministério da Saúde, Secretaria de Atenção à Saúde, Departamento de Atenção Básica, Coordenação Nacional de Saúde Bucal. Diretrizes da Política Nacional de Saúde Bucal. Brasília: Ministério da Saúde; 2004. Âlcantara TL, Batista MJ, Gibilini C, Ferreira NP, Sousa MLRRPG. Fatores associados à saúde bucal de pré-escolares inseridos em programa educativo preventivo no município de Piracicaba/SP. RPG Rev Pós Grad. 2011;18:102-9. Faustino Silva DD, Ritter F, Nascimento IM, Fontanive PVN, Persici S, Rossoni E. Cuidados em saúde bucal na primeira infância: percepção e conhecimentos de pais ou responsáveis de crianças em um centro de saúde de porto Alegre,RS. Rev. Odonto Ciênc. 2008;23(4):375-79. Silva CM, Basso DF, Locks A. Alimentação na primeira infância: Abordagem para a promoção da saúde bucal. Rev Sul-Bras Odontol. 2010;7(4):458-65 Navarro MLR, Reyes SS, Araujo MEF, Zavala VHGS. Prevalencia y grado de gingivitis asociada a placa dentobacteriana en niños. Nova Scientia, 2014;6(2):190-218. Bentley E. Dental health. I. Views about preventive dental care for infants. Health Visit. 1994;67(3):88-9. Ripa LW. Nursing caries: a comprehensive review. Pediatr Dent. 1988 Dec;10(4):268-82. Schwarz N. Assessing frequency reports of mundane behaviors: contributions of cognitive psychology to questionnaire construction. In: Hendrick C, Clark MS. Research methods in personality and social psychology. London: Sage Publications; 1990. p. 98-119. Castro LA, Teixeira DLS, Modesto A. A influência do perfil materno na saúde bucal da criança: relato de caso. JBP J bras odontopediatr odontol bebê. 2002;5(23):70-4. Nowak AJ, Warren JJ. Infant oral health and oral habits. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2000;47(5):1043-66, vi. American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry. Policy on early childhood caries (ECC): classifications, consequences, and preventive strategies. Pediatr Dent. 2006;27(7 Suppl):31-3. Cangussu MCT, Narvai PC, Fernandes RC, Djehizian V. A fluorose dentária no Brasil: uma revisão crítica. Cad Saúde Pública. 2002;18(1):7-15. Warren JJ, Levy SM. A review of fluoride dentifrice related to dental fluorosis. Pediatr Dent. 1999;21(4):265-71. Batista MDE, Valença AMG. Dentifrícios fluoretados e sua utilização em crianças. Arq Odontol. 2004;40(2):127-37. Peres MA, Latorre MRDO, Sheiham A, Peres KG, Barros FC, Hernandez PG et al. Effects of social and biological factors on dental caries in 6-year-old children: a cross sectional study nested in a birth cohort in Southern Brazil. Rev bras epidemiol. 2003;6(4):293-306. American Academy of Pediatric [homepage na internet]. Chicago: Oral Health Policies: Early Childhood Caries (ECC): Classifications, Consequences, and Preventive Strategies; 1978. Ramos BC, Maia LC. Cárie tipo mamadeira e a importância da promoção de saúde bucal em crianças de 0 a 4 anos. Rev Odontol Univ São Paulo. 1999;13(3):303-11.

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BackgroundPsychological disorders are commonly observed in fibromyalgia (FMS). Medical comorbidities are less well characterised in FMS. We sought to assess the prevalence of these disorders in an observational cohort of patients in a tertiary hospital in North India.ObjectivesThe prevalence of medical and psychological comorbidities in FMS and the prevalence of these disorders in FMS subgroups classified according to different ACR classification criteria were assessed.MethodsPatients satisfying either the 1990 ACR or the 2016 ACR Fibromyalgia criteria were included in a cross-sectional study between October’19 and December’21. All patients were assessed for prevalence of chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS), post-traumatic stress syndrome (PTSD), restless leg syndrome (RLS) and medical comorbidities including obesity, obstructive sleep apnoea, anemia, diabetes mellitus, hypertension and hypothyroidism.ResultsA total of 98 patients of median age 39 years (34 – 47) were included, of which 9 met only the 1990 ACR criteria (100% females), 30 met only 2016 ACR criteria (86% females) and 59 met both criteria (89% females). Widespread Pain index was significantly higher in the 1990 + 2016 group compared to subgroups which met only either of the criteria. Hypothyroidism (subclinical or clinical) was similarly higher in the 1990 + 2016 subgroup. At least one psychological comorbidity was seen in 41%, with CFS present in 30% and PTSD in 14%. The median systolic blood pressure was in the hypertensive range (146 mm Hg) in the 1990-only group, with hypertension being present in 1/3rd of the total cohort. Obesity was present in 59% and Diabetes in 11%. Iron deficiency anemia was seen in 20%.Table 1.Prevalence of comorbidities in different subgroups of FibromyalgiaClinical featuresFMS CohortACR 1990ACR 1990 + 2016 (N-59)ACR 2016p-value(N-98)(N-9)(N-30)F:M88:109:053:626:40.6Age (years)39 (34 – 47)38 (32 – 46)38 (34 – 45)44 (35 – 50)0.2Duration of symptoms (months)48 (24 – 84)48 (36 – 84)48 (24 – 78)60 (27 – 84)0.6WPI15 (12 – 17)14 (8 – 15)16 (14 – 18)13 (10 – 16)0.001SSS8 (6 – 10)3 (1 – 4)6 (7 – 10)8 (6 – 9)<0.000TP13 (9-16)13 (12 – 15)15 (13 – 16.5)6 (4 – 8)<0.000BMI (kg/m2)26 (23 – 28)23 (22 – 25)26 (24 – 28)26 (23 – 29)0.2Obese (BMI ≥ 25 kg/m2)58 (59%)3 (33%)37 (62%)18 (60%)0.08Prediabetes (HbA1c 5.7 – 6.5)21 (21%)016 (27%)5 (16%)0.8Diabetes (HbA1C ≥6.5)11 (11%)1(11%)9 (15%)1 (3%)0.2Systolic BP125(115–143)146 (117–148)120(114–137)127(116–143)0.1Diastolic BP80 (76 – 88)80 (76 – 83)82 (75 - 88)79 (76 – 88)0.8Hypertension (≥140/90 cm)37 (37%)6 (66%)20 (33%)11 (36%)0.2Hypothyroidism (TSH > 5 mIU/L)12 (12%)011 (22%)1 (3%)0.04Iron deficiency anemia (Serum Ferritin < 12 ng/ml)14 (20%) (n-67)3 (42%)9 (23%)2 (9%)0.1OSA (intermediate to high risk by STOPBANG questionnaire)32 (32%)1 (11%)17 (28%)140.1CFS30 (30%)1 (11%)22 (37%)7 (23%)0.1PTSD14 (14%)011 (18%)3 (10%)0.2RLS9 (9%)05 (8%)4 (13%)0.4F female, M male, WPI widespread pain index, SSS symptoms severity score, TP tender points, BMI body mass index, BP blood pressure, OSA obstructive sleep apnoea, CFS chronic fatigue syndrome, PTSD post traumatic stress disorder, RLS restless leg syndromeFigure 1.Venn Diagram depicting Fibromyalgia subgroups having psychological comorbiditiesConclusionThere is a high prevalence of comorbidities in patients with fibromyalgia with nearly half having atleast one psychological comorbidity, and obesity, hypertension and iron deficiency anaemia being the common medical comorbidities. Those who met only the 1990 ACR criteria formed less than 10%.References[1]Ahmed S, Aggarwal A, Lawrence A. Performance of the American College of Rheumatology 2016 criteria for fibromyalgia in a referral care setting. Rheumatol Int. 2019 Aug;39(8):1397-1403.[2]Wolfe F, Ablin J, Guymer EK, Littlejohn GO, Rasker JJ. The Relation of Physical Comorbidity and Multimorbidity to Fibromyalgia, Widespread Pain, and Fibromyalgia-related Variables. J Rheumatol. 2020 Apr;47(4):624-631.Disclosure of InterestsNone declared

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This literature review addresses five themes that inform the faculty adequacy standards established by U.S. regional accreditation commissions and provides information about faculty credentials, the relationship between institutional missions and faculty responsibilities; full-time, part-time and contingent faculty; faculty responsibilities, and faculty in disciplinary-based accreditation. This review of literature supports institutions’ responses to the standards for adequacy of full-time faculty in six U.S. regional accreditation commissions. The study’s findings may provide common themes related to faculty adequacy to facilitate the institutions’ definitions and standards for faculty adequacy. The results might inform regional accreditors as they evaluate institutions on this standard. Finally, this study may be of interest to accreditors in other countries as they develop and revise their standards related to faculty adequacy. Keywords Faculty adequacy, accreditation standards, U.S. regional accreditation commissions References [1] Middaugh, M. F. (2002). Faculty productivity: Different strategies for different audiences. Planning For Higher Education, 30(3), 34-43[2] Tincher-Ladner, L., & King, S. (2014). Effects of regional accreditation of full-time faculty on community college graduation rates. Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 38, 947-950.[3] Northwest Commission on Colleges and Universities (NWCCU) (2012). Accreditation standards. Retrieved from http://www.nwccu.org/accreditation/standards-policies/standards/[4] Middle States Commission on Higher Education (MSCHE) (2015). Standards for accreditation and requirements of affiliation ( 13th ed). [5] North Central Association of Colleges and Schools-The Higher Learning Commission (NCA-HLC) (2015). Resource guide: Criteria for accreditation and assumed practices.[6] New England Association of Schools and Colleges Commission on Institutions of Higher Education (NEASC-CIHE) (2011). The standards for accreditation. [7] Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Commission on Colleges (2011). Faculty roster: Instructions for reporting the qualifications of full-time and part-time faculty. [8] WASC Senior College and University Commission (WSCUC) (2013). Handbook of Accreditation. Retrieved at https://www.wscuc.org/book/export/html/924[9] Cohen, A. & Kisker C. (2010). The shaping of American higher education (2nd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.[10] Faireweather.J. (2002). The mythologies of faculty productivity. The Journal of Higher Education. 73(1). 26-48[11] Townsend, B. K. (2008). Community college faculty what we know and need to know. Community College Review. 36 (1). 5-24. [12] National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education. (2003). Federal programs for education and related activities. In Digest of Education Statistics (Chap. 4). Retrieved from the National Center for Education Statistics Web site: http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d10/tables/dt10_261.asp[13] Middaugh, M. F.(2001). Understanding faculty productivity: Standards and benchmarks for colleges and universities. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.[14] Texas Tech University (2006). Faculty responsibility (OP 32.06). Retrieved from http://www.depts.ttu.edu/opmanual/OP32.06.pdf[15] South Plains College (2015). Faculty Handbook. Retrieved from http://www.southplainscollege.edu/employees/manualshandbooks/facultyhandbook.php[16] North Central Association of Colleges and Schools-The Higher Learning Commission (HLC) (2015). Determining qualified faculty through HLC’s criteria for accreditation and assumed practices. Retrieved at https://www.lssu.edu/hlc/documents/QualifiedFacultyGuidelines_2015-08_OPB.pdf[17] Chaden, C. (2013). Engaging faculty in retention: Finding traction through accreditation. New Directions for Higher Education, (161), 91-100. doi: 10.1002/he.20049[18] Williams, T. S. (2011). The unknowning knowers: Faculty and the accreditation process. (Doctoral Dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Full Text (Order No. 3476398).[19] Townsend, B.K & Rosser, V.J (2007). Workload issues and measures of faculty productivities. The NEA Higher Education Journal. 7-19[20] Middaugh, M. F. (2011). Measuring faculty productivity: Let's get it right. Chronicle of Higher Education, 58(2), A43-A44.[21] Middaugh, M. F., Kelly, H. A., & Walters, A. M. (2008). The role of institutional research in understanding and describing faculty work. New Directions for Higher Education, (141), 41-56. doi:10.1002/he.292[22] Maxey, D. D., & Kezar, A. K. (2015). Revealing opportunities and obstacles for changing non-tenure-track faculty practices: An examination of stakeholders' awareness of institutional contradictions. Journal of Higher Education, 86(4), 564-594.[23] Marsh, F. K. (2010). High performance team: Building a business program with part- and full-time faculty. Journal of Education for Business, 85(4), 187-194. doi:10.1080/08832320903252421[24] Elman, S. E. (2003). A regional accreditation perspective on contingent faculty appointments. New Directions for Higher Education, (123), 71.[25] Gerlich, R. N., & Sollosy, M. (2010). Predicting assessment outcomes: The effect of full-time and part-time faculty. Journal of Case Studies in Accreditation and Assessment, 1-9[26] Speer, C. N. (2013). Perceptions of employment and use of part-time faculty among chief instructional officers at southern association of colleges and schools-accredited public associate's colleges. (Doctoral Dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Full Text. (Order No. 3612131)[27] Hedrick, D. D., Henson, S. E., Krieg, J. M., & Wassell Jr., C. S. (2010). The effects of AACSB accreditation on faculty salaries and productivity. Journal of Education for Business, 85(5), 284-291. doi:10.1080/08832320903449543[28] Bell, R. L., & Joyce, M. P. (2011). Comparing business faculty's salaries by rank and gender: Does AACSB accreditation really make a difference? Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, 15(2), 19-40.[29] Koys, D. J. (2008). Judging academic qualifications, professional qualifications, and participation of faculty using AACSB guidelines. Journal of Education for Business, 83(4), 207-213.[30] Boronico, J., Murdy, J., & Kong, X. (2014). Faculty sufficiency and AACSB accreditation compliance within a global university: A mathematical modeling approach. American Journal of Business Education, 7(3), 213-218. [31] Bộ Giáo dục và Đào tạo (2014). Thông thư số 36/2014/TTLT-BGDĐT-BNV ngày 28/11/2014 về Quy định mã số và tiêu chuẩn chức danh nghề nghiệp viên chức giảng dạy trong các cơ sở giáo dục đại học công lập. [32] Chính Phủ (2015). Nghị định chính phủ số 73/2015/NĐ-CP ngày 08/09/2015 về Quy định tiêu chuẩn phân tầng, khung xếp hạng và tiêu chuẩn xếp hạng cơ sở giáo dục đại học. [33] Cục quản lý chất lượng (2018). Thông thư số 768/QLCL-KĐCLGD ngày 20/04/2018 về Hướng dẫn đánh giá theo bộ tiêu chuẩn đánh giá chất lượng cơ sỏ giáo dục đại học.

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Malignant hyperthermia (MH) is a clinical response happened to patient who is sensitive with inhaled anesthesia drug that could cause suddently death. Many previous studies showed that malignant hyperthermia strongly related to genetic background of patients including RYR1, CACNA1S or STAC3 gene polymorphisms. With the development of high technology such as next generation sequencing, scientists found that 37 to 86 percents of MH cases had RYR1 mutations and approximately 1 percent of those had CACNA1S mutations. Gene analysis testing was recommended to apply for patient with MH medical history or MH patient’s family relations. Keywords Malignant hyperthermia, inhaled anesthesia, RYR1, CACNA1S, STAC3. References [1] G. Torri, Inhalation anesthetics: a review, Minerva Anestesiologica 76 (2010) 215–228. [2] N. Kassiri, S. Ardehali, F. Rashidi, S. Hashemian, Inhalational anesthetics agents: The pharmaco*kinetic, pharmacodynamics, and their effects on human body, Biomed. Biotechnol. Res. J. BBRJ 2 (2018) 173. https://doi.org/10.4103/bbrj.bbrj_6618.[3] H. Rosenberg, N. Sambuughin, S. Riazi, R. Dirksen, Malignant Hyperthermia Susceptibility, in: M.P. Adam, H.H. Ardinger, R.A. Pagon, S.E. Wallace, L.J. Bean, K. Stephens, A. Amemiya (Eds.), GeneReviews, University of Washington, Seattle, Seattle (WA), 19932020. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK1146/ (accessed February 2, 2020).[4] H. Rosenberg, N. Pollock, A. Schiemann, T. Bulger, K. Stowell, Malignant hyperthermia: a review, Orphanet J. Rare Dis 10 (2015) 93. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13023-015-0310-1.[5] D. Carpenter, C. Ringrose, V. Leo, A. Morris, R.L. Robinson, P.J. Halsall, P.M. Hopkins, M.-A. Shaw, The role of CACNA1S in predisposition to malignant hyperthermia, BMC Med. Genet 10 (2009) 104. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2350-10-104.[6] S. Riazi, N. Kraeva, P.M. Hopkins, Updated guide for the management of malignant hyperthermia, Can. J. Anaesth. J. Can. Anesth 65 (2018) 709–721. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12630-018-1108-0.[7] S. Riazi, N. Kraeva, P.M. Hopkins, Malignant Hyperthermia in the Post-Genomics Era: New Perspectives on an Old Concept, Anesthesiology 128 (2018) 168–180. https://doi.org/10.1097/ALN.0000000000001878.[8] [D.M. Miller, C. Daly, E.M. Aboelsaod, L. Gardner, S.J. Hobson, K. Riasat, S. Shepherd, R.L. Robinson, J.G. Bilmen, P.K. Gupta, M.-A. Shaw, P.M. Hopkins, Genetic epidemiology of malignant hyperthermia in the UK, BJA Br. J. Anaesth 121 (2018) 944–952. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bja.2018.06.028.[9] T.A. Beam, E.F. Loudermilk, D.F. Kisor, Pharmacogenetics and pathophysiology of CACNA1S mutations in malignant hyperthermia, Physiol. Genomics 49 (2017) 81–87. https://doi.org/10.1152/physiolgenomics.00126.2016.[10] I.T. Zaharieva, A. Sarkozy, P. Munot, A. Manzur, G. O’Grady, J. Rendu, E. Malfatti, H. Amthor, L. Servais, J.A. Urtizberea, O.A. Neto, E. Zanoteli, S. Donkervoort, J. Taylor, J. Dixon, G. Poke, A.R. Foley, C. Holmes, G. Williams, M. Holder, S. Yum, L. Medne, S. Quijano-Roy, N.B. Romero, J. Fauré, L. Feng, L. Bastaki, M.R. Davis, R. Phadke, C.A. Sewry, C.G. Bönnemann, H. Jungbluth, C. Bachmann, S. Treves, F. Muntoni, STAC3 variants cause a congenital myopathy with distinctive dysmorphic features and malignant hyperthermia susceptibility, Hum. Mutat 39 (2018) 1980–1994. https://doi.org/10.1002/humu.23635.[11] A.F. Dulhunty, The voltage-activation of contraction in skeletal muscle, Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol 57 (1992) 181–223. https://doi.org/10.1016/0079-6107(92)90024-Z.[12] C. Franzini-Armstrong, A.O. Jorgensen, Structure and Development of E-C Coupling Units in Skeletal Muscle, Annu. Rev. Physiol 56 (1994) 509–534. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ph.56.030194.002453.[13] D.H. MacLennan, M. Abu-Abed, C. Kang, Structure-function relationships in Ca(2+) cycling proteins, J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol 34 (2002) 897–918. https://doi.org/10.1006/jmcc.2002.2031.[14] H. Rosenberg, M. Davis, D. James, N. Pollock, K. Stowell, Malignant hyperthermia, Orphanet J. Rare Dis 2 (2007) 21. https://doi.org/10.1186/1750-1172-2-21.[15] S.M. Karan, F. Crowl, S.M. Muldoon, Malignant hyperthermia masked by capnographic monitoring, Anesth. Analg 78 (1994) 590–592. https://doi.org/10.1213/00000539-199403000-00029.[16] M.G. Larach, G.A. Gronert, G.C. Allen, B.W. Brandom, E.B. Lehman, Clinical presentation, treatment, and complications of malignant hyperthermia in North America from 1987 to 2006, Anesth. Analg 110 (2010) 498–507. https://doi.org/10.1213/ANE.0b013e3181c6b9b2.[17] M.G. Larach, A.R. Localio, G.C. Allen, M.A. Denborough, F.R. Ellis, G.A. Gronert, R.F. Kaplan, S.M. Muldoon, T.E. Nelson, H. Ording, H. Rosenberg, B.E. Waud, D.J. Wedel, A Clinical Grading Scale to Predict Malignant Hyperthermia Susceptibility, Anesthesiology 80 (1994) 771–779. https://doi.org/10.1097/00000542-199404000-00008.[18] D. Schneiderbanger, S. Johannsen, N. Roewer, F. Schuster, Management of malignant hyperthermia: diagnosis and treatment, Ther. Clin. Risk Manag 10 (2014) 355–362. https://doi.org/10.2147/TCRM.S47632.[19] R. Robinson, D. Carpenter, M.-A. Shaw, J. Halsall, P. Hopkins, Mutations in RYR1 in malignant hyperthermia and central core disease, Hum. Mutat 27 (2006) 977–989. https://doi.org/10.1002/humu.20356.[20] M.L. Alvarellos, R.M. Krauss, R.A. Wilke, R.B. Altman, T.E. Klein, PharmGKB summary: very important pharmacogene information for RYR1, Pharmacogenet. Genomics 26 (2016) 138–144. https://doi.org/10.1097/FPC.0000000000000198.[21] A. Merritt, P. Booms, M.-A. Shaw, D.M. Miller, C. Daly, J.G. Bilmen, K.M. Stowell, P.D. Allen, D.S. Steele, P.M. Hopkins, Assessing the pathogenicity of RYR1 variants in malignant hyperthermia, BJA Br. J. Anaesth 118 (2017) 533–543. https://doi.org/10.1093/bja/aex042.[22] P.M. Hopkins, H. Rüffert, M.M. Snoeck, T. Girard, K.P.E. Glahn, F.R. Ellis, C.R. Müller, A. Urwyler, European Malignant Hyperthermia Group, European Malignant Hyperthermia Group guidelines for investigation of malignant hyperthermia susceptibility, Br. J. Anaesth 115 (2015) 531–539. https://doi.org/10.1093/bja/aev225.[23] N.T. Thuy, L.N. Thanh, N.T.T. Mau, N.H. Hoang, N.T.K. Lien, D.D. Long, N.T. Bình, D.A. Tien, N.C. Huu, N.T. Hieu, P.T.H. Nhung, V.T. Thom, Whole exome sequencing revealed a pathogenic variant in a gene related to malignant hyperthermia in a Vietnamese cardiac surgical patient: A case report, Ann. Med. Surg 48 (2019) 88–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amsu.2019.10.030.[24] B. Neuhuber, U. Gerster, F. Döring, H. Glossmann, T. Tanabe, B.E. Flucher, Association of calcium channel α1S and β1a subunits is required for the targeting of β1a but not of α1S into skeletal muscle triads, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A 95 (1998) 5015–5020. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.95.9.5015.[25] M. Whirl-Carrillo, E.M. McDonagh, J.M. Hebert, L. Gong, K. Sangkuhl, C.F. Thorn, R.B. 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Chemical compounds (drugs) and diseases are among top searched keywords on the PubMed database of biomedical literature by biomedical researchers all over the world (according to a study in 2009). Working with PubMed is essential for researchers to get insights into drugs’ side effects (chemical-induced disease relations (CDR), which is essential for drug safety and toxicity. It is, however, a catastrophic burden for them as PubMed is a huge database of unstructured texts, growing steadily very fast (~28 millions scientific articles currently, approximately two deposited per minute). As a result, biomedical text mining has been empirically demonstrated its great implications in biomedical research communities. Biomedical text has its own distinct challenging properties, attracting much attetion from natural language processing communities. A large-scale study recently in 2018 showed that incorporating information into indenpendent multiple-input layers outperforms concatenating them into a single input layer (for biLSTM), producing better performance when compared to state-of-the-art CDR classifying models. This paper demonstrates that for a CNN it is vice-versa, in which concatenation is better for CDR classification. To this end, we develop a CNN based model with multiple input concatenated for CDR classification. Experimental results on the benchmark dataset demonstrate its outperformance over other recent state-of-the-art CDR classification models. Keywords: Chemical disease relation prediction, Convolutional neural network, Biomedical text mining References [1] Paul SM, S. Mytelka, C.T. Dunwiddie, C.C. Persinger, B.H. Munos, S.R. Lindborg, A.L. Schacht, How to improve R&D productivity: The pharmaceutical industry's grand challenge, Nat Rev Drug Discov. 9(3) (2010) 203-14. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrd3078. [2] J.A. DiMasi, New drug development in the United States from 1963 to 1999, Clinical pharmacology and therapeutics 69 (2001) 286-296. https://doi.org/10.1067/mcp.2001.115132. [3] C.P. Adams, V. Van Brantner, Estimating the cost of new drug development: Is it really $802 million? Health Affairs 25 (2006) 420-428. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.25.2.420. [4] R.I. Doğan, G.C. Murray, A. Névéol et al., "Understanding PubMed user search behavior through log analysis", Oxford Database, 2009. [5] G.K. Savova, J.J. Masanz, P.V. Ogren et al., "Mayo clinical text analysis and knowledge extraction system (cTAKES): Architecture, component evaluation and applications", Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association, 2010. [6] T.C. Wiegers, A.P. Davis, C.J. Mattingly, Collaborative biocuration-text mining development task for document prioritization for curation, Database 22 (2012) pp. bas037. [7] N. Kang, B. Singh, C. Bui et al., "Knowledge-based extraction of adverse drug events from biomedical text", BMC Bioinformatics 15, 2014. [8] A. Névéol, R.L. Doğan, Z. Lu, "Semi-automatic semantic annotation of PubMed queries: A study on quality, Efficiency, Satisfaction", Journal of Biomedical Informatics 44, 2011. [9] L. Hirschman, G.A. Burns, M. Krallinger, C. Arighi, K.B. Cohen et al., Text mining for the biocuration workflow, Database Apr 18, 2012, pp. bas020. [10] Wei et al., "Overview of the BioCreative V Chemical Disease Relation (CDR) Task", Proceedings of the Fifth BioCreative Challenge Evaluation Workshop, 2015. [11] P. Verga, E. Strubell, A. McCallum, Simultaneously Self-Attending to All Mentions for Full-Abstract Biological Relation Extraction, In Proceedings of the 2018 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies 1 (2018) 872-884. [12] Y. Shen, X. Huang, Attention-based convolutional neural network for semantic relation extraction, In: Proceedings of COLING 2016, the Twenty-sixth International Conference on Computational Linguistics: Technical Papers, The COLING 2016 Organizing Committee, Osaka, Japan, 2016, pp. 2526-2536. [13] Y. Peng, Z. Lu, Deep learning for extracting protein-protein interactions from biomedical literature, In: Proceedings of the BioNLP 2017 Workshop, Association for Computational Linguistics, Vancouver, Canada, 2016, pp. 29-38. [14] S. Liu, F. Shen, R. Komandur Elayavilli, Y. Wang, M. Rastegar-Mojarad, V. Chaudhary, H. Liu, Extracting chemical-protein relations using attention-based neural networks, Database, 2018. [15] H. Zhou, H. Deng, L. Chen, Y. Yang, C. Jia, D. Huang, Exploiting syntactic and semantics information for chemical-disease relation extraction, Database, 2016, pp. baw048. [16] S. Liu, B. Tang, Q. Chen et al., Drug–drug interaction extraction via convolutional neural networks, Comput, Math, Methods Med, Vol (2016) 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/6918381. [17] L. Wang, Z. Cao, G. De Meloet al., Relation classification via multi-level attention CNNs, In: Proceedings of the Fifty-fourth Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics 1 (2016) 1298-1307. https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/P16-1123. [18] J. Gu, F. Sun, L. Qian et al., Chemical-induced disease relation extraction via convolutional neural network, Database (2017) 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1093/database/bax024. [19] H.Q. Le, D.C. Can, S.T. Vu, T.H. Dang, M.T. Pilehvar, N. Collier, Large-scale Exploration of Neural Relation Classification Architectures, In Proceedings of the 2018 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing, 2018, pp. 2266-2277. [20] Y. LeCun, L. Bottou, Y. Bengio, P. Haffner, Gradient-based learning applied to document recognition, In Proceedings of the IEEE. 86(11) (1998) 2278-2324. [21] Y. Kim, Convolutional neural networks for sentence classification, ArXiv preprint arXiv:1408.5882. [22] C. Nagesh, Panyam, Karin Verspoor, Trevor Cohn and Kotagiri Ramamohanarao, Exploiting graph kernels for high performance biomedical relation extraction, Journal of biomedical semantics 9(1) (2018) 7. [23] H. Zhou, H. Deng, L. Chen, Y. Yang, C. Jia, D. Huang, Exploiting syntactic and semantics information for chemical-disease relation extraction, Database, 2016.

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This essay aims to show some approaches in the understanding of the lifelong learning concepts, knowledge, competence, from a literature review with the contributions of Dewey, Bruner, Freire, Schon and Tardif among others. Coming from theoretical studies carried out by Italian researchers and a Brazilian researcher, through their Research Centers/Laboratories and international collaborative partnership between Brazilian and Italian Universities, this text addresses from the undertake scientific literature, key terms which support the held studies. From the considerations, it is highlighted the regular understanding around lifelong learning concept, which considers the human condition for the permanent learning and valuing experiences from different contexts, such as family and school (basic and higher education). In view of this, the approximation between the concepts of competence and knowledge was also highlighted, recognized and valued as fundamental elements for the learning process and for the development of critical and reflexive thinking, and consequently transforming daily problems and challenges. The task reinforces the research network, pursuing the improving theoretical knowledge to subsidize the scientific research production in the educational field, besides Brazilian or Italian academic walls.SommarioQuesto saggio ha l’obiettivo di presentare gli approcci sulla definizione dei concetti di apprendimento permanente, saperi e competenze, partendo da una revisione della letteratura, con i contributi,tra gli altri, di Dewey, Bruner, Freire, Schon e Tardif. A partire dall’analisi teorica condotta da ricercatori italiani e una ricercatrice brasiliana, mediante i loro centri di ricerca/laboratório, e l’accordo di collaborazione internazionale tra l’università brasiliana e italiana, questo testo affronta, in base alla letteratura scientifica, i termini chiave che supportano gli studi realizzati. Dalle argomentazioni espresse, emerge la posizione comune sul concetto di apprendimento permanente o per tutta la vita, che considera l’approccio umanistico e la valorizzazione delle esperienze provenienti da diversi contesti come la famiglia e la scuola (in particolare di base e superiore). In questa prospettiva, si mette in evidenzia anche l'approssimazione semantica tra i concetti di competenza e saperi, riconosciuti e valorizzati come elementi fondamentali per il processo di apprendimento e per lo sviluppo del pensiero critico e riflessivo, e di conseguenza trasformatore rispetto ai problemi e alle sfide quotidiane della vita. Il presente contributo rafforza la rete di ricerca congiunta, con l'obiettivo di migliorare le conoscenze teoriche per supportare lo sviluppo di ricerche in campo educativo, al di là delle mura accademiche brasiliane o italiane.Keywords: Lifelong learning, Knowledge, Strategic competence, Reflexive competence.Parole chiave: Apprendimento permanente, Saperi, Competenze strategiche, Competenze di riflessione.Palavras-chave: Aprendizagem permanente, Conhecimento, Competência estratégica, Competência reflexiva.ReferencesALBERICI, A. La possibilità di cambiare. Apprendere ad apprendere come risorsa strategica per la vita. Milano: Franco Angeli, 2008.ALBERICI, A.; DI RIENZO, P. Learning to learn for individual and society. In: R. Deakin CRICK, C. S.; K. REN (Eds), Learning to Learn. International perspectives from theory and practice. New York: Routledge, 2014, p. 87-104.BALDACCI M. Trattato di pedagogia generale, Roma: Carocci Editore, 2002.BANDURA A. 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A cirurgia de terceiros molares, embora seja um procedimento rotineiro em nível ambulatorial pode evoluir para complicações trans ou pós-operatorias, as quais o cirurgião deverá estar apto para conduzir os casos da maneira mais adequada. O objetivo desta pesquisa foi avaliar a prevalência das complicações associados a terceiros molares em um serviço de referência no sertão paraibano, Brasil. Este estudo se trata de pesquisa retrospectiva com levantamentos de dados através de prontuários odontológicos, os quais para serem inclusos para análise deveriam estar preenchidos completamente e os pacientes terem se submetidos a exodontias de algum terceiro molar e acompanhado por pelo menos 07 dias pós-operatório. A amostra foi formada com 226 prontuários, os quais registram 483 desses tipos de exodontias. Verificou-se que as complicações tiveram uma prevalência geral de 8,9%, de forma que as mais frequentes foram fratura radicular (27,9%), alveolite (20,93%), parestesia do nervo alveolar inferior (18,6%), parestesia do nervo lingual (7,0%), hemorragia trans-operatória (7,0%), fratura do túber da maxila (4,65%), parestesia do nervo facial (2,32%), luxação da ATM (2,32%), fratura de broca (2,32%), hemorragia pós-operatória (2,32%), laceração de tecido mole (2,32%), e lipotínea (2,32%). Conclui-se que os pacientes na faixa etária de 16 a 25 anos, do gênero feminino foram os mais acometidos e a fratura radicular apresentou-se mais prevalente seguida da alveolite e parestesia do nervo alveolar inferior.Descritores: Prevalência; Cirurgia Bucal; Dente Serotino.ReferênciasCosta MG, Pazzini CA, Pantuzo MCG, Jorge MLR, Marques LS. Is there justification for prophylactic extraction of third molars? A systematic review. Braz Oral Res. 2013;27(2):183-88.Chang SK, Perrott DH, Susarla SM, Dodson TB. 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Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), a novel coronavirus , is causing a serious worldwide COVID-19 pandemic. The emergence of strains with rapid spread and unpredictable changes is the cause of the increase in morbidity and mortality rates. A number of drugs as well as vaccines are currently being used to relieve symptoms, prevent and treat the disease caused by this virus. However, the number of approved drugs is still very limited due to their effectiveness and side effects. In such a situation, medicinal plants and bioactive compounds are considered a highly valuable source in the development of new antiviral drugs against SARS-CoV-2. This review summarizes medicinal plants and bioactive compounds that have been shown to act on molecular targets involved in the infection and replication of SARS-CoV-2. Keywords: Medicinal plants, bioactive compounds, antivirus, SARS-CoV-2, COVID-19 References [1] R. Lu, X. Zhao, J. Li, P. Niu, B. Yang, H. 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Abstract:

IntroductionThe Internet (especially in the so-called Web 2.0 phase), digital media and file-sharing networks have thrust copyright law under public scrutiny, provoking discourses questioning what is fair in the digital age. Accessible hardware and software has led to prosumerism – creativity blending media consumption with media production to create new works that are freely disseminated online via popular video-sharing Web sites such as YouTube or genre specific music sites like GYBO (“Get Your Bootleg On”) amongst many others. The term “prosumer” is older than the Web, and the conceptual convergence of producer and consumer roles is certainly not new, for “at electric speeds the consumer becomes producer as the public becomes participant role player” (McLuhan 4). Similarly, Toffler’s “Third Wave” challenges “old power relationships” and promises to “heal the historic breach between producer and consumer, giving rise to the ‘prosumer’ economics” (27). Prosumption blurs the traditionally separate consumer and producer creating a new creative era of mass customisation of artefacts culled from the (copyrighted) media landscape (Tapscott 62-3). Simultaneously, corporate interests dependent upon the protections provided by copyright law lobby for augmented rights and actively defend their intellectual property through law suits, takedown notices and technological reinforcement. Despite a lack demonstrable economic harm in many cases, the propertarian approach is winning and frequently leading to absurd results (Collins).The balance between private and public interests in creative works is facilitated by the doctrine of fair use (as codified in the United States Copyright Act 1976, section 107). The majority of copyright laws contain “fair” exceptions to claims of infringement, but fair use is characterised by a flexible, open-ended approach that allows the law to flex with the times. Until recently the defence was unique to the U.S., but on 2 January Israel amended its copyright laws to include a fair use defence. (For an overview of the new Israeli fair use exception, see Efroni.) Despite its flexibility, fair use has been systematically eroded by ever encroaching copyrights. This paper argues that copyright enforcement has spun out of control and the raison d’être of the law has shifted from being “an engine of free expression” (Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc. v. Nation Enterprises 471 U.S. 539, 558 (1985)) towards a “legal regime for intellectual property that increasingly looks like the law of real property, or more properly an idealized construct of that law, one in which courts seeks out and punish virtually any use of an intellectual property right by another” (Lemley 1032). Although the copyright landscape appears bleak, two recent cases suggest that fair use has not fallen by the wayside and may well recover. This paper situates fair use as an essential legal and cultural mechanism for optimising creative expression.A Brief History of CopyrightThe law of copyright extends back to eighteenth century England when the Statute of Anne (1710) was enacted. Whilst the length of this paper precludes an in depth analysis of the law and its export to the U.S., it is important to stress the goals of copyright. “Copyright in the American tradition was not meant to be a “property right” as the public generally understands property. It was originally a narrow federal policy that granted a limited trade monopoly in exchange for universal use and access” (Vaidhyanathan 11). Copyright was designed as a right limited in scope and duration to ensure that culturally important creative works were not the victims of monopolies and were free (as later mandated in the U.S. Constitution) “to promote the progress.” During the 18th century English copyright discourse Lord Camden warned against propertarian approaches lest “all our learning will be locked up in the hands of the Tonsons and the Lintons of the age, who will set what price upon it their avarice chooses to demand, till the public become as much their slaves, as their own hackney compilers are” (Donaldson v. Becket 17 Cobbett Parliamentary History, col. 1000). Camden’s sentiments found favour in subsequent years with members of the North American judiciary reiterating that copyright was a limited right in the interests of society—the law’s primary beneficiary (see for example, Wheaton v. Peters 33 US 591 [1834]; Fox Film Corporation v. Doyal 286 US 123 [1932]; US v. Paramount Pictures 334 US 131 [1948]; Mazer v. Stein 347 US 201, 219 [1954]; Twentieth Century Music Corp. v. Aitken 422 U.S. 151 [1975]; Aronson v. Quick Point Pencil Co. 440 US 257 [1979]; Dowling v. United States 473 US 207 [1985]; Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc. v. Nation Enterprises 471 U.S. 539 [1985]; Luther R. Campbell a.k.a. Luke Skyywalker, et al. v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc. 510 U.S 569 [1994]). Putting the “Fair” in Fair UseIn Folsom v. Marsh 9 F. Cas. 342 (C.C.D. Mass. 1841) (No. 4,901) Justice Storey formulated the modern shape of fair use from a wealth of case law extending back to 1740 and across the Atlantic. Over the course of one hundred years the English judiciary developed a relatively cohesive set of principles governing the use of a first author’s work by a subsequent author without consent. Storey’s synthesis of these principles proved so comprehensive that later English courts would look to his decision for guidance (Scott v. Stanford L.R. 3 Eq. 718, 722 (1867)). Patry explains fair use as integral to the social utility of copyright to “encourage. . . learned men to compose and write useful books” by allowing a second author to use, under certain circ*mstances, a portion of a prior author’s work, where the second author would himself produce a work promoting the goals of copyright (Patry 4-5).Fair use is a safety valve on copyright law to prevent oppressive monopolies, but some scholars suggest that fair use is less a defence and more a right that subordinates copyrights. Lange and Lange Anderson argue that the doctrine is not fundamentally about copyright or a system of property, but is rather concerned with the recognition of the public domain and its preservation from the ever encroaching advances of copyright (2001). Fair use should not be understood as subordinate to the exclusive rights of copyright owners. Rather, as Lange and Lange Anderson claim, the doctrine should stand in the superior position: the complete spectrum of ownership through copyright can only be determined pursuant to a consideration of what is required by fair use (Lange and Lange Anderson 19). The language of section 107 suggests that fair use is not subordinate to the bundle of rights enjoyed by copyright ownership: “Notwithstanding the provisions of sections 106 and 106A, the fair use of a copyrighted work . . . is not an infringement of copyright” (Copyright Act 1976, s.107). Fair use is not merely about the marketplace for copyright works; it is concerned with what Weinreb refers to as “a community’s established practices and understandings” (1151-2). This argument boldly suggests that judicial application of fair use has consistently erred through subordinating the doctrine to copyright and considering simply the effect of the appropriation on the market place for the original work.The emphasis on economic factors has led courts to sympathise with copyright owners leading to a propertarian or Blackstonian approach to copyright (Collins; Travis) propagating the myth that any use of copyrighted materials must be licensed. Law and media reports alike are potted with examples. For example, in Bridgeport Music, Inc., et al v. Dimension Films et al 383 F. 3d 400 (6th Cir. 2004) a Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals held that the transformative use of a three-note guitar sample infringed copyrights and that musicians must obtain licence from copyright owners for every appropriated audio fragment regardless of duration or recognisability. Similarly, in 2006 Christopher Knight self-produced a one-minute television advertisem*nt to support his campaign to be elected to the board of education for Rockingham County, North Carolina. As a fan of Star Wars, Knight used a makeshift Death Star and lightsaber in his clip, capitalising on the imagery of the Jedi Knight opposing the oppressive regime of the Empire to protect the people. According to an interview in The Register the advertisem*nt was well received by local audiences prompting Knight to upload it to his YouTube channel. Several months later, Knight’s clip appeared on Web Junk 2.0, a cable show broadcast by VH1, a channel owned by media conglomerate Viacom. Although his permission was not sought, Knight was pleased with the exposure, after all “how often does a local school board ad wind up on VH1?” (Metz). Uploading the segment of Web Junk 2.0 featuring the advertisem*nt to YouTube, however, led Viacom to quickly issue a take-down notice citing copyright infringement. Knight expressed his confusion at the apparent unfairness of the situation: “Viacom says that I can’t use my clip showing my commercial, claiming copy infringement? As we say in the South, that’s ass-backwards” (Metz).The current state of copyright law is, as Patry says, “depressing”:We are well past the healthy dose stage and into the serious illness stage ... things are getting worse, not better. Copyright law has abandoned its reason for being: to encourage learning and the creation of new works. Instead, its principal functions now are to preserve existing failed business models, to suppress new business models and technologies, and to obtain, if possible, enormous windfall profits from activity that not only causes no harm, but which is beneficial to copyright owners. Like Humpty-Dumpty, the copyright law we used to know can never be put back together.The erosion of fair use by encroaching private interests represented by copyrights has led to strong critiques leveled at the judiciary and legislators by Lessig, McLeod and Vaidhyanathan. “Free culture” proponents warn that an overly strict copyright regime unbalanced by an equally prevalent fair use doctrine is dangerous to creativity, innovation, culture and democracy. After all, “few, if any, things ... are strictly original throughout. Every book in literature, science and art, borrows, and must necessarily borrow, and use much which was well known and used before. No man creates a new language for himself, at least if he be a wise man, in writing a book. He contents himself with the use of language already known and used and understood by others” (Emerson v. Davis, 8 F. Cas. 615, 619 (No. 4,436) (CCD Mass. 1845), qted in Campbell v. Acuff-Rose, 62 U.S.L.W. at 4171 (1994)). The rise of the Web 2.0 phase with its emphasis on end-user created content has led to an unrelenting wave of creativity, and much of it incorporates or “mashes up” copyright material. As Negativland observes, free appropriation is “inevitable when a population bombarded with electronic media meets the hardware [and software] that encourages them to capture it” and creatively express themselves through appropriated media forms (251). The current state of copyright and fair use is bleak, but not beyond recovery. Two recent cases suggest a resurgence of the ideology underpinning the doctrine of fair use and the role played by copyright.Let’s Go CrazyIn “Let’s Go Crazy #1” on YouTube, Holden Lenz (then eighteen months old) is caught bopping to a barely recognizable recording of Prince’s “Let’s Go Crazy” in his mother’s Pennsylvanian kitchen. The twenty-nine second long video was viewed a mere twenty-eight times by family and friends before Stephanie Lenz received an email from YouTube informing her of its compliance with a Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) take-down notice issued by Universal, copyright owners of Prince’s recording (McDonald). Lenz has since filed a counterclaim against Universal and YouTube has reinstated the video. Ironically, the media exposure surrounding Lenz’s situation has led to the video being viewed 633,560 times at the time of writing. Comments associated with the video indicate a less than reverential opinion of Prince and Universal and support the fairness of using the song. On 8 Aug. 2008 a Californian District Court denied Universal’s motion to dismiss Lenz’s counterclaim. The question at the centre of the court judgment was whether copyright owners should consider “the fair use doctrine in formulating a good faith belief that use of the material in the manner complained of is not authorized by the copyright owner, its agent, or the law.” The court ultimately found in favour of Lenz and also reaffirmed the position of fair use in relation to copyright. Universal rested its argument on two key points. First, that copyright owners cannot be expected to consider fair use prior to issuing takedown notices because fair use is a defence, invoked after the act rather than a use authorized by the copyright owner or the law. Second, because the DMCA does not mention fair use, then there should be no requirement to consider it, or at the very least, it should not be considered until it is raised in legal defence.In rejecting both arguments the court accepted Lenz’s argument that fair use is an authorised use of copyrighted materials because the doctrine of fair use is embedded into the Copyright Act 1976. The court substantiated the point by emphasising the language of section 107. Although fair use is absent from the DMCA, the court reiterated that it is part of the Copyright Act and that “notwithstanding the provisions of sections 106 and 106A” a fair use “is not an infringement of copyright” (s.107, Copyright Act 1976). Overzealous rights holders frequently abuse the DMCA as a means to quash all use of copyrighted materials without considering fair use. This decision reaffirms that fair use “should not be considered a bizarre, occasionally tolerated departure from the grand conception of the copyright design” but something that it is integral to the constitution of copyright law and essential in ensuring that copyright’s goals can be fulfilled (Leval 1100). Unlicensed musical sampling has never fared well in the courtroom. Three decades of rejection and admonishment by judges culminated in Bridgeport Music, Inc., et al v. Dimension Films et al 383 F. 3d 400 (6th Cir. 2004): “Get a license or do not sample. We do not see this stifling creativity in any significant way” was the ruling on an action brought against an unlicensed use of a three-note guitar sample under section 114, an audio piracy provision. The Bridgeport decision sounded a death knell for unlicensed sampling, ensuring that only artists with sufficient capital to pay the piper could legitimately be creative with the wealth of recorded music available. The cost of licensing samples can often outweigh the creative merit of the act itself as discussed by McLeod (86) and Beaujon (25). In August 2008 the Supreme Court of New York heard EMI v. Premise Media in which EMI sought an injunction against an unlicensed fifteen second excerpt of John Lennon’s “Imagine” featured in Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed, a controversial documentary canvassing alleged chilling of intelligent design proponents in academic circles. (The family of John Lennon and EMI had previously failed to persuade a Manhattan federal court in a similar action.) The court upheld Premise Media’s arguments for fair use and rejected the Bridgeport approach on which EMI had rested its entire complaint. Justice Lowe criticised the Bridgeport court for its failure to examine the legislative intent of section 114 suggesting that courts should look to the black letter of the law rather than blindly accept propertarian arguments. This decision is of particular importance because it establishes that fair use applies to unlicensed use of sound recordings and re-establishes de minimis use.ConclusionThis paper was partly inspired by the final entry on eminent copyright scholar William Patry’s personal copyright law blog (1 Aug. 2008). A copyright lawyer for over 25 years, Patry articulated his belief that copyright law has swung too far away from its initial objectives and that balance could never be restored. The two cases presented in this paper demonstrate that fair use – and therefore balance – can be recovered in copyright. The federal Supreme Court and lower courts have stressed that copyright was intended to promote creativity and have upheld the fair doctrine, but in order for the balance to exist in copyright law, cases must come before the courts; copyright myth must be challenged. As McLeod states, “the real-world problems occur when institutions that actually have the resources to defend themselves against unwarranted or frivolous lawsuits choose to take the safe route, thus eroding fair use”(146-7). ReferencesBeaujon, Andrew. “It’s Not the Beat, It’s the Mocean.” CMJ New Music Monthly. April 1999.Collins, Steve. “Good Copy, Bad Copy: Covers, Sampling and Copyright.” M/C Journal 8.3 (2005). 26 Aug. 2008 ‹http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0507/02-collins.php›.———. “‘Property Talk’ and the Revival of Blackstonian Copyright.” M/C Journal 9.4 (2006). 26 Aug. 2008 ‹http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0609/5-collins.php›.Donaldson v. Becket 17 Cobbett Parliamentary History, col. 953.Efroni, Zohar. “Israel’s Fair Use.” The Center for Internet and Society (2008). 26 Aug. 2008 ‹http://cyberlaw.stanford.edu/node/5670›.Lange, David, and Jennifer Lange Anderson. “Copyright, Fair Use and Transformative Critical Appropriation.” Conference on the Public Domain, Duke Law School. 2001. 26 Aug. 2008 ‹http://www.law.duke.edu/pd/papers/langeand.pdf›.Lemley, Mark. “Property, Intellectual Property, and Free Riding.” Texas Law Review 83 (2005): 1031.Lessig, Lawrence. The Future of Ideas. New York: Random House, 2001.———. Free Culture. New York: Penguin, 2004.Leval, Pierre. “Toward a Fair Use Standard.” Harvard Law Review 103 (1990): 1105.McDonald, Heather. “Holden Lenz, 18 Months, versus Prince and Universal Music Group.” About.com: Music Careers 2007. 26 Aug. 2008 ‹http://musicians.about.com/b/2007/10/27/holden-lenz-18-months-versus-prince-and-universal-music-group.htm›.McLeod, Kembrew. “How Copyright Law Changed Hip Hop: An interview with Public Enemy’s Chuck D and Hank Shocklee.” Stay Free 2002. 26 Aug. 2008 ‹http://www.stayfreemagazine.org/archives/20/public_enemy.html›.———. Freedom of Expression: Overzealous Copyright Bozos and Other Enemies of Creativity. United States: Doubleday, 2005.McLuhan, Marshall, and Barrington Nevitt. Take Today: The Executive as Dropout. Ontario: Longman Canada, 1972.Metz, Cade. “Viacom Slaps YouTuber for Behaving like Viacom.” The Register 2007. 26 Aug. 2008 ‹http://www.theregister.co.uk/2007/08/30/viacom_slaps_pol/›.Negativland, ed. Fair Use: The Story of the Letter U and the Numeral 2. Concord: Seeland, 1995.Patry, William. The Fair Use Privilege in Copyright Law. Washington DC: Bureau of National Affairs, 1985.———. “End of the Blog.” The Patry Copyright Blog. 1 Aug. 2008. 27 Aug. 2008 ‹http://williampatry.blogspot.com/2008/08/end-of-blog.html›.Tapscott, Don. The Digital Economy: Promise and Peril in the Age of Networked Intelligence. New York: McGraw Hill, 1996.Toffler, Alvin. The Third Wave. London, Glasgow, Sydney, Auckland. Toronto, Johannesburg: William Collins, 1980.Travis, Hannibal. “Pirates of the Information Infrastructure: Blackstonian Copyright and the First Amendment.” Berkeley Technology Law Journal, Vol. 15 (2000), No. 777.Vaidhyanathan, Siva. Copyrights and Copywrongs: The Rise of Intellectual Property and How It Threatens Creativity. New York; London: New York UP, 2003.

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Introduction In November 2020, upon learning that the company’s Covid-19 vaccine trial had been successful, the head of Pfizer’s Vaccine Research and Development, Kathrin Jansen, celebrated with champagne – “some really good stuff” (Cohen). Bubbles seem to go naturally with celebration, and champagne is fundamentally associated with bubbles. Yet, until the late-seventeenth century, champagne was a still wine, and it only reached the familiar levels of bubbliness in the late-nineteenth century (Harding). During this period and on into the early twentieth century, “champagne” was in many ways created, defined, and defended. A “champagne bubble” was created, within which the “nature” of champagne was contested and constructed. Champagne today is the result of hundreds of years of labour by many sorts of bubble-makers: those who make the bubbly drink, and those who construct, maintain, and defend the champagne bubble. In this article, I explore some elements of the champagne bubble, in order to understand both its fragility and rigidity over the years and today. Creating the Champagne Bubble – the Labour of Centuries It is difficult to separate the physical from the mythical as regards champagne. Therefore the categorisations below are always overlapping, and embedded in legal, political, economic, and socio-cultural factors. Just as assemblage – the mixing of wine from different grapes – is an essential element of champagne wine, the champagne bubble may be called heterogeneous assemblage. Indeed, the champagne bubble, as we will see below, is a myriad of different sorts of bubbles, such as terroir, appellation, myth and brand. And just as any assemblage, its heterogeneous elements exist and operate in relation to each other. Therefore the “champagne bubble” discussed here is both one and many, all of its elements fundamentally interconnected, constituting that “one” known as “champagne”. It is not my intention to be comprehensive of all the elements, historical and contemporary. Indeed, that would not be possible within such a short article. Instead, I seek to demonstrate some of the complexity of the champagne bubble, noting the elaborate labour that has gone into its creation. The Physical Champagne and Champagne – from Soil to Bubbles Champagne means both a legally protected geographical area (Champagne), and the wine (here: champagne) produced in this area from grapes defined as acceptable: most importantly pinot noir, pinot meunier (“black” grapes), and chardonnay (“white” grape). The method of production, too, is regulated and legally protected: méthode champenoise. Although the same method is used in numerous locations, these must be called something different: metodo classico (Italy), método tradicional (Spain), Methode Cap Classique (South Africa). The geographical area of Champagne was first legally defined in 1908, when it only included the areas of Marne and Aisne, leaving out, most importantly, the area of Aube. This decision led to severe unrest and riots, as the Aube vignerons revolted in 1911, forcing the inclusion of “zone 2”: Aube, Haute-Marne, and Seine-et-Marne (Guy). Behind these regulations was a surge in fraudulent production in the early twentieth century, as well as falling wine prices resulting from increasing supply of cheap wines (Colman 18). These first appellations d’origine had many consequences – they proved financially beneficial for the “zone 1”, but less so for the “zone 2”. When both these areas were brought under the same appellation in 1927, the financial benefits were more limited – but this may have been due to the Great Depression triggered in 1929 (Haeck et al.). It is a long-standing belief that the soil and climate of Champagne are key contributors to the quality of champagne wines, said to be due to “conditions … most suitable for making this type of wine” (Simon 11). Already in the end of the nineteenth century, the editor of Vigneron champenois attributed champagne’s quality to “a fortunate combination of … chalky soil … [and] unrivalled exposure [to the sun]” (Guy 119) among other things. Factors such as soil and climate, commonly included in and expressed through the idea of terroir, undoubtedly influence grapes and wines made thereof, but the extent remains unproven. Indeed, terroir itself is a very contested concept (Teil; Inglis and Almila). It is also the case that climate change has had, and will continue to have, devastating effects on wine production in many areas, while benefiting others. The highly successful English sparkling wine production, drawing upon know-how from the Champagne area, has been enabled by the warming climate (Inglis), while Champagne itself is at risk of becoming too hot (Robinson). Champagne is made through a process more complicated than most wines. I present here the bare bones of it, to illustrate the many challenges that had to be overcome to enable its production in the scale we see today. Freshly picked grapes are first pressed and the juice is fermented. Grape juice contains natural yeasts and therefore will ferment spontaneously, but fermentation can also be started with artificial yeasts. In fermentation, alcohol and carbon dioxide (CO2) are formed, but the latter usually escapes the liquid. The secret of champagne is its second fermentation, which happens in bottles, after wines from different grapes and/or vineyards have been blended for desired characteristics (assemblage). For the second fermentation, yeast and sugar are added. As the fermentation happens inside a bottle, the CO2 that is created does not escape, but dissolves into the wine. The average pressure inside a champagne bottle in serving temperature is around 5 bar – 5 times the pressure outside the bottle (Liger-Belair et al.). The obvious challenge this method poses has to do with managing the pressure. Exploding bottles used to be a common problem, and the manner of sealing bottles was not very developed, either. Seventeenth-century developments in bottle-making, and using corks to seal bottles, enabled sparkling wines to be produced in the first place (Leszczyńska; Phillips 137). Still today, champagne comes in heavy-bottomed bottles, sealed with characteristically shaped cork, which is secured with a wire cage known as muselet. Scientific innovations, such as calculating the ideal amount of sugar for the second fermentation in 1836, also helped to control the amount of gas formed during the second fermentation, thus making the behaviour of the wine more predictable (Leszczyńska 265). Champagne is characteristically a “manufactured” wine, as it involves several steps of interference, from assemblage to dosage – sugar added for flavour to most champagnes after the second fermentation (although there are also zero dosage champagnes). This lends champagne particularly suitable for branding, as it is possible to make the wine taste the same year after year, harvest after harvest, and thus create a distinctive and recognisable house style. It is also possible to make champagnes for different tastes. During the nineteenth century, champagnes of different dosage were made for different markets – the driest for the British, the sweetest for the Russians (Harding). Bubbles are probably the most striking characteristic of champagne, and they are enabled by the complicated factors described above. But they are also formed when the champagne is poured in a glass. Natural impurities on the surface of the glass provide channels through which the gas pockets trapped in the wine can release themselves, forming strains of rising bubbles (Liger-Belair et al.). Champagne glasses have for centuries differed from other wine glasses, often for aesthetic reasons (Harding). The bubbles seem to do more than give people aesthetic pleasure and sensory experiences. It is often claimed that champagne makes you drunk faster than other drinks would, and there is, indeed, some (limited) research showing that this may well be the case (Roberts and Robinson; Ridout et al.). The Mythical Champagne – from Dom Pérignon to Modern Wonders Just as the bubbles in a champagne glass are influenced by numerous forces, so the metaphorical champagne bubble is subject to complex influences. Myth-creation is one of the most significant of these. The origin of champagne as sparkling wine is embedded in the myth of Dom Pérignon of Hautvillers monastery (1638–1715), who according to the legend would have accidentally developed the bubbles, and then enthusiastically exclaimed “I am drinking the stars!” (Phillips 138). In reality, bubbles are a natural phenomenon provoked by winter temperatures deactivating the fermenting yeasts, and spring again reactivating them. The myth of Dom Pérignon was first established in the nineteenth century and quickly embraced by the champagne industry. In 1937, Moët et Chandon launched a premium champagne called Dom Pérignon, which enjoys high reputation until this day (Phillips). The champagne industry has been active in managing associations connected with champagne since the nineteenth century. Sparkling champagnes had already enjoyed fashionability in the later seventeenth and early eighteenth century, both in the French Court, and amongst the British higher classes. In the second half of the nineteenth century, champagne found ever increasing markets abroad, and the clientele was not aristocratic anymore. Before the 1860s, champagne’s association was with high status celebration, as well as sexual activity and seduction (Harding; Rokka). As the century went on, and champagne sales radically increased, associations with “modernity” were added: “hot-air balloons, towering steamships, transcontinental trains, cars, sports, and other ‘modern’ wonders were often featured in quickly proliferating champagne advertising” (Rokka 280). During this time, champagne grew both drier and more sparkling, following consumer tastes (Harding). Champagne’s most important markets in later nineteenth century included the UK, where the growing middle classes consumed champagne for both celebration and hospitality (Harding), the US, where (upper) middle-class women were served champagne in new kinds of consumer environments (Smith; Remus), and Russia, where the upper classes enjoyed sweeter champagne – until the Revolution (Phillips 296). The champagne industry quickly embraced the new middle classes in possession of increasing wealth, as well as new methods of advertising and marketing. What is remarkable is that they managed to integrate enormously varied cultural thematics and still retain associations with aristocracy and luxury, while producing and selling wine in industrial scale (Harding; Rokka). This is still true today: champagne retains a reputation of prestige, despite large-scale branding, production, and marketing. Maintaining and Defending the Bubble: Formulas, Rappers, and the Absolutely Fabulous Tipplers The falling wine prices and increasing counterfeit wines coincided with Europe’s phylloxera crisis – the pest accidentally brought over from North America that almost wiped out all Europe’s vineyards. The pest moved through Champagne in the 1890s, killing vines and devastating vignerons (Campbell). The Syndicat du Commerce des vins de Champagne had already been formed in 1882 (Rokka 280). Now unions were formed to fight phylloxera, such as the Association Viticole Champenoise in 1898. The 1904 Fédération Syndicale des Vignerons was formed to lobby the government to protect the name of Champagne (Leszczyńska 266) – successfully, as we have seen above. The financial benefits from appellations were certainly welcome, but short-lived. World War I treated Champagne harshly, with battle lines stuck through the area for years (Guy 187). The battle went on also in the lobbying front. In 1935, a new appellation regime was brought into law, which came to be the basis for all European systems, and the Comité National des appellations d'origine (CNAO) was founded (Colman 1922). Champagne’s protection became increasingly international, and continues to be so today under EU law and trade deals (European Commission). The post-war recovery of champagne relied on strategies used already in the “golden years” – marketing and lobbying. Advertising continued to embrace “luxury, celebration, transport (extending from air travel to the increasingly popular automobile), modernity, sports” (Guy 188). Such advertisem*nt must have responded accurately to the mood of post-war, pre-depression Europe. Even in the prohibition US it was known that the “frivolous” French women might go as far as bathe in champagne, like the popular actress Mistinguett (Young 63). Curiously, in the 1930s Soviet Russia, “champagne” (not produced in Champagne) was declared a sign of good living, symbolising the standard of living that any Soviet worker had access to (at least in theory) (Gronow). Today, the reputation of champagne is fiercely defended in legal terms. This is not only in terms of protection against other sparkling wine making areas, but also in terms of exploitation of champagne’s reputation by actors in other commercial fields, and even against mass market products containing genuine champagne (Mahy and d’Ath; Schneider and Nam). At the same time, champagne has been widely “democratised” by mass production, enabled partly by increasing mechanisation and scientification of champagne production from the 1950s onwards (Leszczyńska 266). Yet champagne retains its association with prestige, luxury, and even royalty. This has required some serious adaptation and flexibility. In what follows, I look into three cultural phenomena that illuminate processes of such adaptation: Formula One (F1) champagne spraying, the 1990s sitcom Absolutely Fabulous, and the Cristal racism scandal in 2006. The first champagne bottle is said to have been presented to F1 grand prix winner in Champagne in 1950 (Wheels24). Such a gesture would have been fully in line with champagne’s association with cars, sport, and modernity. But what about the spraying? Surely that is not in line with the prestige of the wine? The first spraying is attributed to Jo Siffert in 1966 and Dan Gurney in 1967, the former described as accidental, the latter as a spontaneous gesture of celebration (Wheels24; Dobie). Moët had become the official supplier of F1 champagnes in 1966, and there are no signs that the new custom would have been problematic for them, as their sponsorship continued until 1999, after which Mumm sponsored the sport for 15 years. Today, the champagne to be popped and sprayed is Chanson, in special bottles “coated in the same carbon fibre that F1 cars are made of” (Wheels24). Such an iconic status has the spraying gained that it features in practically all TV broadcasts concerning F1, although non-alcoholic substitute is used in countries where sale of alcohol is banned (Barker et al., “Quantifying”; Barker et al., “Alcohol”). As disturbing as the champagne spraying might look for a wine snob, it is perfectly in line with champagne’s marketing history and entrepreneurial spirit shown since the nineteenth century. Nor is it unheard of to let champagne spray. The “art” of sabrage, opening champagne bottle with a sable, associated with glamour, spectacle, and myth – its origin is attributed to Napoleon and his officers – is perfectly acceptable even for the snob. Sparkling champagne was always bound up with joy and celebration, not a solemn drink, and the champagne bubble was able to accommodate middle classes as well as aristocrats. This brings us to our second example, the British sitcom Absolutely Fabulous. The show, first released in 1992, featured two women, “Eddy” (Jennifer Saunders) and “Patsy” (Joanna Lumley), who spent their time happily smoking, taking drugs, and drinking large quantities of “Bolly” (among other things). Bollinger champagne may have initially experienced “a bit of a shock” for being thus addressed, but soon came to see the benefits of fame (French). In 2005, they hired PR support to make better use of the brand’s “Ab Fab” recognisability, and to improve its prestige reputation in order to justify their higher price range (Cann). Saunders and Lumley were warmly welcomed by the Bollinger house when filming for their champagne tour Absolutely Champers (2017). It is befitting indeed that such controversial fame came from the UK, the first country to discover sparkling champagne outside France (Simon 48), and where the aspirational middle classes were keen to consume it already in the nineteenth century (Harding). More controversial still is the case of Cristal (made by Louis Roederer) and the US rap world. Enthusiastically embraced by the “bling-bling” world of (black) rappers, champagne seems to fit their ethos well. Cristal was long favoured as both a drink and a word in rap lyrics. But in 2006, the newly appointed managing director at the family owned Roederer, Frédéric Rouzaud, made comments considered racist by many (Woodland). Rouzard told in an interview with The Economist that the house observed the Cristal-rap association “with curiosity and serenity”. He reportedly continued: “but what can we do? We can’t forbid people from buying it. I’m sure Dom Pérignon or Krug would be delighted to have their business”. It was indeed those two brands that the rapper Jay-Z replaced Cristal with, when calling for a boycott on Cristal. It would be easy to dismiss Rouzard’s comments as snobbery, or indeed as racism, but they merit some more reflection. Cristal is the premium wine of a house that otherwise does not enjoy high recognisability. While champagne’s history involves embracing new sorts of clientele, and marketing flexibly to as many consumer groups as possible (Rokka), this was the first spectacular crossing of racial boundaries. It was always the case that different houses and their different champagnes were targeted at different clienteles, and it is apparent that Cristal was not targeted at black rap artists. Whereas Bollinger was able to turn into a victory the questionable fame brought by the white middle-class association of Absolutely Fabulous, the more prestigious Cristal considered the attention of the black rapper world more threatening and acted accordingly. They sought to defend their own brand bubble, not the larger champagne bubble. Cristal’s reputation seems to have suffered little – its 2008 vintage, launched in 2018, was the most traded wine of that year (Schultz). Jay-Z’s purchase of his own champagne brand (Armand de Brignac, nicknamed Ace of Spades) has been less successful reputation-wise (Greenburg). It is difficult to break the champagne bubble, and it may be equally difficult to break into it. Conclusion In this article, I have looked into the various dilemmas the “bubble-makers” of Champagne encountered when fabricating what is today known as “champagne”. There have been moments of threat to the bubble they formed, such as in the turn of nineteenth and twentieth centuries, and eras of incomparable success, such as from the 1860s to 1880s. The discussion has demonstrated the remarkable flexibility with which the makers and defenders of champagne have responded to challenges, and dealt with material, socio-cultural, economic, and other problems. It feels appropriate to end with a note on the current challenge the champagne industry faces: Covid-19. The pandemic hit champagne sales exceptionally hard, leaving around 100 million bottles unsold (Micallef). This was not very surprising, given the closure of champagne-selling venues, banning of public and private celebrations, and a general mood not particularly prone to (or even likely to frown upon) such light-hearted matters as glamour and champagne. Champagne has survived many dramatic drops in sales during the twentieth century, such as the Great Depression of the 1930s, and the post-financial crisis collapse in 2009. Yet they seem to be able to make astonishing recoveries. Already, there are indicators that many people consumed more champagne during the festive end-of-year season than in previous years (Smithers). For the moment, it looks like the champagne bubble, despite its seeming fragility, is practically indestructible, no matter how much its elements may suffer under various pressures and challenges. References Barker, Alexander, Magdalena Opazo-Breton, Emily Thomson, John Britton, Bruce Granti-Braham, and Rachael L. Murray. “Quantifying Alcohol Audio-Visual Content in UK Broadcasts of the 2018 Formula 1 Championship: A Content Analysis and Population Exposure.” BMJ Open 10 (2020): e037035. <https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/10/8/e037035>. Barker, Alexander B., John Britton, Bruce Grant-Braham, and Rachael L. Murray. “Alcohol Audio-Visual Content in Formula 1 Television Broadcasting.” BMC Public Health 18 (2018): 1155. <https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-018-6068-3>. Campbell, Christy. 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Leszczyńska, D. “A Cluster and Its Trajectory: Evidence from the History of the French Champagne Production Cluster.” Labor History 57.2 (2016): 258-276. <https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0023656X.2016.1161140>. Liger-Belair, Gérard, Guillaume Polidori, and Philippe Jeandet. “Recent Advances in the Science of Champagne Bubbles.” Chemical Society Reviews 37 (2008): 2490–2511. <https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2008/cs/b717798b#!divAbstract>. Mahy, Aude, and Florence d’Ath. “The Case of the ‘Champagner Sorbet’ – Unlawful Exploitation or Legitimate Use of the Protected Name ‘Champagne’?” EFFL 1 (2017): 43-48. <https://www.jstor.org/stable/26451418?seq=1>. Micallef, Joseph V. “How Champagne Is Bouncing Back after the COVID-19 Pandemic.” Forbes 15 Nov. 2020. 4 Mar. 2021 <https://www.forbes.com/sites/joemicallef/2020/11/15/how-champagne-is-bouncing-back-after-the-covid-19-pandemic/?sh=3300e4125784>. Phillips, Rod. A Short History of Wine. London: Penguin, 2000. Remus, Emily A. “Tippling Ladies and the Making of Consumer Culture: Gender and Public Space in ‘Fin-de- Siècle’ Chicago.” The Journal of American History 101.3 (2014): 751-77. <https://academic.oup.com/jah/article/101/3/751/796447?login=true>. Ridout, Fran, Stuart Gould, Carlo Nunes, and Ian Hindmarch. “The Effects of Carbon Dioxide in Champagne on Psychometric Performance and Blood-Alcohol Concentration.” Alcohol and Alcoholism 38.4 (2003): 381-85. <https://academic.oup.com/alcalc/article/38/4/381/232628>. Roberts, C., and S.P. Robinson. “Alcohol Concentration and Carbonation of Drinks: The Effect on Blood Alcohol Levels.” Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine 14.7 (2007): 398-405. <https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17720590/>. Robinson, Frances. “Champagne Will Be Too Hot for Champagne Research Warns.” Decanter. 12 Jan. 2004. 4 Mar. 2021 <https://www.decanter.com/wine-news/champagne-will-be-too-hot-for-champagne-research-warns-103258/>. Rokka, Joonas. “Champagne: Marketplace Icon.” Consumption Markets & Culture 20.3 (2017): 275-283. <https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10253866.2016.1177990?journalCode=gcmc20>. Schneider, Marius, and Nora Ho Tu Nam. “Champagne Makes the Dough Sour: EUIPO Board of Appeal Allows Opposition against Registration of Champagnola Trade Mark Based on Evocation of Champagne PDO.” Journal of Intellectual Property Law & Practice 15.9 (2020): 675-676. <https://academic.oup.com/jiplp/article/15/9/675/5905791>. Schultz, Abby. “20 Minutes With: Frédéric Rouzaud on Cristal, Biodynamics, and Zero Dosage.” Penta. 31 Dec. 2018. 4 Mar. 2021 <https://www.barrons.com/articles/20-minutes-with-frederic-rouzaud-on-cristal-biodynamics-and-zero-dosage-01546280265>. Simon, André L. The History of Champagne. London: Octobus, 1972. Smith, Andrew F. Drinking History: Fifteen Turning Points in the Making of American Beverages. New York: Columbia University Press, 2013. Smithers, Rebecca. “Britons Turn to Luxury Food and Drink to See Out Dismal 2020 in Style.” The Guardian 28 Dec. 2020. 4 Mar. 2021 <https://www.theguardian.com/business/2020/dec/28/britons-turn-luxury-food-drink-see-out-dismal-2020-style?CMP=Share_AndroidApp_Gmail>. Teil, Geneviève. “No Such Thing as Terroir? Objectivities and the Regimes of Existence of Objects.” Science, Technology & Human Values 37.5 (2012): 478-505. <https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0162243911423843>. Wheels24. “Champagne Returns to F1 podium.” 2 Aug. 2017. 4 Mar. 2021 <https://www.news24.com/wheels/FormulaOne/champagne-returns-to-f1-podium-20170802>. Woodland, Richard. “Rapper Jay-Z Boycotts ‘Racist’ Cristal.” Decanter 16 June 2006. 4 Mar. 2021 <https://www.decanter.com/wine-news/rapper-jay-z-boycotts-racist-cristal-94054/>. 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ABSTRACT This article examines the bioethical discourse on polygenic embryo screening (PES) in reproductive medicine in blogs and news stories published during 2021 in response to the first baby’s birth using polygenic risk scores (PRS) derived from genome-wide association studies. We further contextualize the findings by synthesizing the emerging peer-reviewed bioethics literature on the issue, which has emphasized considerations regarding the child-parent future relationship, equity of access, and the absence of professional guidelines. Our media content analysis has established that expert opinion was prominently featured in news coverage, with bioethicists and other academics contributing 38 percent of articles and providing extensive commentary on ethical, social, and policy implications in the articles written by journalists. The overall perspective towards the use of PES was primarily negative (59 percent of the articles), without significant differences in negativity and positivity between experts and science reporters. This indicates a shift from the predominantly neutral attitudes towards the technology in media discourse prior to its deployment in clinical settings. There is heightened awareness that offering these tests to prospective parents is unethical and can create unrealistic expectations, with the two most prominent arguments being uncertainty about the prediction accuracy of polygenic risk scores in this context (72 percent of the articles) and the potential of PES to lead to a eugenic future of human reproduction that normalizes the discrimination of people based on their genetics (59 percent of the articles). INTRODUCTION The possibility of using genetic technologies to engineer the perfect baby has long haunted the public imagination. While some techno-utopians have openly advocated for human genetic enhancement, many critics have warned that advances in DNA technology come with myriads of ethical dilemmas and potentially dangerous social consequences. Literary and cinematic works have offered dystopian visions of our genetic futures—from Aldous Huxley’s powerful socio-political fantasy in his book Brave New World (1932) to cult classics of sci-fi cinema, such as Blade Runner (1982) and Gattaca (1997), there has been no shortage of ominous predictions that genetic engineering would lead to a new form of eugenics, which would ultimately create new social hierarchies grounded on genetic discrimination. Moreover, concerns about the use of genetic and genomic technologies for social control have been entangled with deep philosophical questions about personal autonomy, the right of the child to an open future, and the morality of changing, improving, or redesigning human nature.1 The perennial debate on human enhancement was recently reignited with a new controversy over the use of pre-implantation screening of embryos using polygenic risk scores.2 While the profiling of IVF embryos to detect hereditary, monogenetic diseases has been widely accepted, some companies are now pushing the envelope with unrealistic promises of tests that can predict genetic possibilities for desirable traits such as a child’s intelligence, athletic ability, and physical appearance. One event that prompted a public outcry in late 2021 was news about the birth of the first baby from an embryo selected through polygenic testing, a girl named Aurea.3 Although the embryo screening in Aurea’s case was used to decrease the likelihood for certain health conditions, many commentators believed that it signaled a real possibility of embryo selection for non-medical reasons becoming a commercial procedure in the foreseeable future, especially in the largely unregulated US fertility market.4 In the past, there have been discrepancies in how ethical and policy issues arising from advances in reproductive medicine have been viewed by experts (e.g., bioethicists, philosophers, legal scholars) and presented in the news. Like other advances in medical genetics, gene editing and screening technologies have been frequently characterized by exaggeration, sensationalism, and hype around clinical possibilities.5 Moreover, news media have often amplified the anticipated health benefits of genetic testing while overlooking uncertainty associated with its clinical validity and emerging ethical concerns, as shown in a recent study of the media portrayal of non-invasive prenatal testing (NIPT).6 The issue of polygenic embryo screening (PES) initially gained traction in the media in 2017 when the New Jersey biotech startup Genomic Prediction made headlines with claims that its testing technology could identify and avoid implanting embryos with very low IQs.7 The company also claimed that it had the capability to identify embryos with high IQs, although it committed not to offer that procedure for ethical reasons.8 The media coverage of polygenic risk scoring of human embryos between 2017 and 2019 was previously analyzed in a study published in BMC Medical Ethics in September 2021.9 This media content analysis has established that while most news articles were neutral towards the technology, one of the most significant critiques raised by science reporters was the absence of solid scientific evidence for the technology’s predictive accuracy and its practical value in IVF settings. It has also identified five major ethical concerns articulated by science reporters that have also been addressed in the academic discourse and within broader policy debates on reproductive technologies: a slippery slope towards designer babies, well-being of the child and parents, impact on society, deliberate choice, and societal readiness. In this article, we examine the discourse on PES in bioethics blogs, opinion articles, and news stories published in 2021, with a specific focus on reactions to the birth of the first polygenic risk score baby. We compare the perspectives of experts and science reporters to establish their attitudes towards PES, the main ethical themes in press coverage, and the key issues highlighted for a future policy debate. We also juxtapose our findings to the previous study of media coverage to establish if the case of baby Aurea has raised any new issues and pressing ethical concerns. I. Polygenic Embryo Screening in Reproductive Medicine While complex diseases and human traits result from a combination of genetic, lifestyle, and environmental factors, genomic medicine is quickly gaining momentum, and demands for genetic tests in clinical practice have significantly increased. Scans and analyses of genomes from various populations, a research area known as genome-wide association studies, have enabled scientists and researchers to identify genetic differences or variants associated with a particular trait or medical condition. These variants can be combined into a polygenic risk score that predicts an individual’s traits or increased risk for a certain disease. For instance, PES have been used to predict a range of diverse common conditions, from diabetes and cancer to attention deficit issues10 and, in some cases, well-being in general.11 This testing modality relies on the probabilistic susceptibility of individuals to certain diseases to offer personalized medical treatments and inform therapeutic interventions. Polygenic embryo screening uses polygenic risk scores to assess an embryo’s statistical risks of developing diseases (e.g., cardiovascular diseases) and potentially traits (e.g., intelligence, athletic ability, among others) and is performed in an IVF setting. It is currently marketed by several US companies such as MyOme, OrchidHealth, and Genomic Prediction to prospective parents as a method to screen pre-implantation embryos for health and non-health related conditions and is accessible to those who can afford to pay for it. As stated in a recent report on companies bringing PES into reproductive medicine, Genomic Prediction has already made their test for polygenic disorders, LifeView, available to couples. In contrast, Orchid Health has only recently invited couples to an early-access program for their testing technology, and MyOme is still in the process of launching its own test.12 In September 2021, Bloomberg first reported the birth of baby Aurea using screening conducted by Genomic Prediction. She was born after her parents used IVF and subsequently PES to select from 33 candidate pre-implantation embryos in 2020.13 Aurea’s embryo was deemed to have the best genetic odds of avoiding conditions such as breast cancer, diabetes, heart disease, and schizophrenia in adulthood. It is worth noting that Genomic Prediction made the announcement almost one year following Aurea’s birth, thus delaying the media’s reaction to this development and the ensuing bioethical and policy debates. II. Ethical, Social, and Policy Implications Some important ethical, social, and regulatory considerations regarding the development and clinical use of PES have been raised within the academic community. The bioethics literature on the issue, however, appears rather thin, which is not surprising given that prior to 2021, the possibility of using this screening method in clinical practice was largely hypothetical. Other genomic technologies that have enabled polygenic embryo selection, such as whole-genome sequencing and pre-implantation genetic diagnosis, have received more attention from bioethicists, legal scholars, and Ethical, Legal, and Social Implications (ELSI) researchers. Our analysis of the emerging literature has shown that some proponents of PES advocate its current use and go as far as to suggest a permissive regulatory environment for the purpose of outpacing the ethical concerns and potential restrictions once the technology becomes widely available. This approach suggests that embryo selection should be allowed for or against any trait associated with higher odds for better health and well-being in general, often without further discussion of what accounts for wellbeing.14 Scholars applying the principle of procreative beneficence to defend the use of PES have also argued for regulation that addresses issues of justice and equality and expands access to the procedure for those who are currently unable to afford it. By contrast, opponents have argued that the clinical utility of this embryo selection method is yet to be proven, and its current use may create unrealistic expectations in parents, making it an unethical practice to offer the procedure as part of IVF treatments.15 They state that predictive models from PRS have been developed with data from genomes of adult populations. Therefore, extrapolating results for embryo screening, along with the absence of a research protocol to validate its diagnostic effectiveness, is dangerous and misleading.16 Another layer of complexity is added because PRS already faces many translational hurdles that would undermine its predictive value assessment for certain traits or diseases. Scientists have noted that PRS take into consideration the genetic component of a particular trait putting aside the effects of other non-genetic factors, such as lifestyle and environment, which might interfere and influence the calculation of these scores.17 Discussions on the ethics and societal implications of PES in the bioethics literature can be grouped into three distinct categories: 1) relational issues between parents and the future child (e.g., selection as identity-determining, concerns about the instrumentalization of children and the child’s right to an open future); 2) concerns about social justice and equality (e.g., fears about a new eugenics that establishes new social hierarchy, limited access to the technology due to its cost); and 3) implementation and regulatory concerns (e.g., lack of professional guidelines and advertising of PES by private companies). An important ethical implication of PES relates to the well-being of the future child and the way that selecting children based on their genetic make-up might negatively affect the parent-child relationship. This is in line with previously raised ethical concerns in the literature around cloning and pre-implantation genetic diagnosis that by choosing a child’s genetic predisposition, we are limiting to and, in some cases, denying their right to an open future. For instance, the future child’s options would be restricted if parents chose a genetic predisposition to musicality that might interfere with the child’s ability to make certain life choices.18 On a societal level, there are concerns PES may alter social perceptions of what is “normal” and “healthy,” resulting in discrimination and stigmatization of certain conditions.19 Related to this are fears about encouraging eugenic attitudes that can exacerbate discrimination against people with disabilities. Furthermore, one of the main ethical concerns raised is that the growing use of PES might exacerbate societal pressure to use this technology, influencing parents’ decisions to select the embryo with the “best” genetics giving rise to a generation of “designer babies.” 20 Finally, direct-to-consumer marketing and clinical introduction of the technology prior to the publication of professional guidelines and in the absence of scientific validity for its use, as well as without appropriate regulatory oversight, is seen as a premature step that might erode public trust.21 III. News Stories and Expert Commentary on Polygenic Embryo Screening in 2021 We conducted searches on google news using keywords such as “polygenic embryo screening,” “polygenic risk scores,” “baby Aurea,” and “embryo selection” and selected blogs and articles from major news sources (e.g., Washington Post, New York Times, Wall Street Journal, LA Times, Guardian, The Times, etc.). An additional effort was made to collect all relevant articles from prominent bioethics blogs such as the Hastings Center Bioethics Forum, Impact Ethics, Bioethics.net, Biopolitical Times (Center for Genetics and Society), among others. The time period for the study was one year, from January 1 to December 31, 2021. While most coverage occurred after the Bloomberg report on the birth of the first baby using PES, there were a number of news stories and blogs in response to a special report on embryo selection based on polygenic risk scores published in the New England Journal of Medicine on July 1, 2020.22 This report, which has received significant attention in the press, warns that companies that offer genetic services can create unrealistic expectations in health providers and prospective parents through their marketing practices. It has further emphasized the scientific uncertainty around the predictive results of PRS in the context of embryo selection. In general, our search has established that the news media coverage on PES over the past year has revolved around these two events – the NEJM Report and the announcement about the first baby born after PES. In total, we collected 29 publications, of which 12 were blog posts and 17 publications under the general category of “news,” including ten news articles, three opinion pieces/perspective articles, two press releases, and one radio broadcast transcript (see Supplementary Material). IV. Methods for content analysis We utilized an inductive-deductive process to develop coding categories for a systematic content analysis of the blogs and new articles. The first author undertook a close reading of the entire dataset to derive inductively recurrent themes and ethical arguments in the media representations of PES. Based on this preliminary analysis, both authors agreed on the categories for textual analysis. The coding book was further refined by using a deductive approach that incorporates themes that have been previously articulated in the scholarly literature on the issue, particularly questions about the perceived attributes of the test, ethical concerns, and emerging policy considerations. The following categories were used to analyze key issues and attitudes towards PES expressed by experts and science journalists: a. Claims that PES is unethical because it violates the future child’s autonomy. b. Concerns about PES as a step towards eugenics and/or genetic discrimination. c. Defenses of PES with arguments that parents have a duty to give the child the healthiest possible start in life (and reduce public health burden). d. Claims that the science behind PRS-based diagnostics is uncertain, and it will take some time to prove its clinical validity. e. Concerns about the equality of access to PES. f. Arguments that PES can exacerbate ethnic and racial inequality (e.g., that most polygenic scores are created using DNA samples from individuals of European ancestries and predictions may not be accurate in other populations). g. Arguments that PES provides health benefits and can help overcome genetic and health inequalities. h. Concerns about the negative impact that PES may have on the child-parent relationship. i. Arguments about the need for better regulatory oversight of PES. j. Suggestions that there is an urgent need for deliberation and debate on the societal and ethical implications of PES. k. Concerns that patients and clinicians may get the impression that the procedure is more effective and less risky than it is. l. Assessment of whether the article’s perspective towards the use of PES is positive, negative, or neutral. We used yes/no questions to detect the frequencies of mentions in each category, except on the last question, which required a more nuanced, qualitative assessment of the overall tone of the articles. We coded articles as “positive” when the authors viewed the technology favorably and emphasized its potential health benefits over its negative implications. Articles that did not condone the current use of PES and expressed strong concerns about the predictive accuracy of this testing method, its readiness for clinical use, and highlighted its controversial ethical and social implications were coded as “negative.” Finally, articles that simply presented information about the topic and quoted experts on the advantages and disadvantages of using PRS for embryo selection without taking a side or expressing value judgments were coded as “neutral.” Acknowledging the complex polysemic nature of media texts, we took into consideration that support or disapproval of PES may be implicit and expressed by giving credence to some experts’ opinions over others. Therefore, we coded articles that mostly cited expert opinion favorable to PES, or alternatively, presented such views as more credible, as “positive”, while we coded articles that emphasized critical perspectives as “negative.” V. Media Discourse and Expert Opinion On PES We found out that perspectives and opinions by experts were prominently featured in both news (17 articles) and blogs (12 articles). The blog posts in our dataset were written by university professors in bioethics (four articles), academics from other disciplines such as medicine, political science, psychology, human genetics, and neurobiology (four articles), and science journalists and editors (four articles). Furthermore, three of the news articles in influential newspapers and magazines such as The Wall Street Journal, The Washington Post, and The Scientific American were opinion articles or commentaries contributed by academics (e.g., a psychology professor, specializing in personality, individual differences, and behavior genetics, a sociology professor, and a director of research in a graduate program in human genetics). The remaining 14 news articles in our dataset were written by science reporters, editors, or other staff writers. Altogether, experts contributed 38 percent of the media coverage (11 articles) on the issue of PES and its wider societal implications. Experts’ comments were also heavily featured in the 18 articles written by science reporters and other media professionals, which accounted for 68 percent of the dataset. Of these articles, 17 extensively cited experts with academic and research backgrounds (professors and research scientists), seven articles quoted industry representatives (e.g., CEOs and spokespersons of Genomic Prediction and Orchid, other commercial developers), and four articles included opinions by parents seeking PES, particularly Aurea’s father, North Carolina neurologist Rafal Smigrodzki, who argued that a parent’s duty is to prevent disease in their child.23 The overall perspective towards the use of PES was mostly negative – 59 percent (17 articles) expressed negative attitudes, while 24 percent (seven articles) were positive and 17% (five articles) were neutral in tone and did not advance arguments in favor or against the technology and its adoption. However, we did not establish significant differences in negativity and positivity between experts and science reporters. For instance, 49 percent of the articles with negative attitudes were written by experts, while 53 percent were authored by science reports. Similarly, the articles by experts with positive perspectives on PES accounted for 13 percent of the dataset, while science reporters contributed 11 percent of the positive articles. VI. Major Themes and Issues The most discussed issue in media coverage was the prediction accuracy of polygenic risk scores and the uncertainties regarding the utility of these tests in embryo screening. Our analysis has established that 72 percent of the articles (21 out of 29) argued that the science behind PES-based diagnostics is uncertain, and it will take some time to prove its clinical validity. The second most frequently mentioned issue was the potential of PES to lead to a eugenic future of human reproduction. More than half of the articles (59 percent or 17 out of 29) raised concerns that PES could become a step towards a new form of eugenics that could eventually normalize the discrimination of people based on their genetics. Despite concerns about the accuracy of PES testing, many articles gave extensive attention to problems concerning equality of access to PES and related diagnostic services, with 49 percent of the articles (13 out of 29) expressing concerns that the procedure is currently offered at a high cost, it is not covered by health insurance plans, and people of lower socioeconomic status cannot afford it. Furthermore, 41 percent of the articles (12 out of 29) raise concern that the current use of PES reflects the existing ethnic and racial inequalities since most PES are created using DNA samples from individuals of European ancestries, and predictions may not be accurate in other populations. Although it has been reported that Genomic Prediction considers offering the procedure to parents of non-European ancestries, their messaging has suggested it would take a significant time to provide them with predictive models that are as relevant as those for European populations.24 The health benefits of this testing technology, its regulation, and the need for a wider debate on how to realize its promise in a responsible manner were also addressed, albeit to a lesser extent. The potential to overcome genetic and health inequalities by selecting healthy embryos with the best odds against diseases and chronic conditions was emphasized in 41 percent of the articles (12 out of 29). The regulation was a topic covered in 38 percent of the articles (11 out of 29), in which the authors argued that better regulatory oversight of PES is needed, especially in the present condition of an unregulated US market for genetic testing. Additionally, 38 percent suggested that there is an urgent need for deliberation and public debate on the societal and ethical implications of PES. Finally, the issue that patients and clinicians may get the wrong impression that the procedure is more effective and less risky was addressed in 31 percent (nine out of 29). We have established that critical issues about how PES may affect the well-being of the future child and the child-parent relationship have received less attention. For instance, only 17 percent of the articles (five out of 29) supported the clinical use of PES with arguments that parents have a moral obligation to give the child the healthiest possible start in life, a line of thought that is prominent in the bioethics literature on procreative beneficence and procreative autonomy.25 These authors also maintained that the technology has the potential to provide benefits to individuals and reduce the burden of disease and public health expenditure. Similarly, just 10 percent of the articles (three out of 29) expressed concerns about the negative impact that PES may have on the child-parent relationship by causing relational asymmetries between generations and limiting the autonomy of the future child. CONCLUSION Our content analysis has shown that the media discourse on PES and the birth of baby Aurea has been highly influenced by expert opinion. In fact, leading experts from bioethics and a range of other academic disciplines contributed 38 percent of the content in the form of blogs, opinion articles, and commentaries, published on prestigious bioethics fora and in the popular press. Furthermore, as our analysis has shown, science reporters have heavily relied on expert opinion in writing stories about the ethical challenges and societal implications of PES. One important finding of our study is the prevalence of negative attitudes towards the technology, as opposed to past media representations of PES, which had been neutral towards the technology.26 This change in attitudes is likely caused by the amplified voices of bioethics experts reacting to the first clinical use of the technology, which made hypothetical ethical dilemmas a very real possibility. As far as the thematic focus of media representations is concerned, the birth of the first baby using PES has raised ethical concerns similar to those highlighted in the literature on PES and embryo selection through pre-implantation genetic diagnosis, with the most prominent issue being the absence of robust scientific evidence for the predictive accuracy of PRS modeling and its practical value in IVF settings. Although the critical nature of media discourse can contribute to raising public awareness about the ethical acceptability of the technology, bioethicists should also examine the effect of economic forces and societal pressures to have a perfect child that may be driving prospective parents to seek such unproven genetic interventions. PES is an emerging niche in a large, unregulated market for genetic testing services that has the potential to shape the future of reproductive medicine, and there is an urgent need for a policy debate on how it can be developed responsibly and ethically. 1 J. Habermas, "The Debate on the Ethical self-Understanding of the Species," The Future of Human Nature (Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing, 2003): p. 16-100. 2 Polygenic risk scores (PRS) are used in personalized medicine to predict disease risk in different human populations, not necessarily for risk modelling in embryos. Polygenic embryo screening (PES), on the other hand, involves the clinical use of PRS modelling from genome-wide association studies of adult populations for selecting embryos with the lowest probability of developing certain health conditions in adulthood. It could potentially be used to select embryos with a higher probability for inheritance of certain physical traits or complex characteristics. 3 C. Goldberg, "Picking Embryos With Best Health Odds Sparks New DNA Debate," Bloomberg September 17, 2021. 4 D. Conley, "A new age of genetic screening is coming — and we don’t have any rules for it," The Washington Post June 14, 2021. 5 K. Kamenova, A. Reshef, and T. Caulfield, "Angelina Jolie's faulty gene: newspaper coverage of a celebrity's preventive bilateral mastectomy in Canada, the United States, and the United Kingdom," Genetics in Medicine 16, no. 7 (2014): 522-28. 6 K. Kamenova et al., "Media portrayal of non-invasive prenatal testing: a missing ethical dimension," Journals of Science Communication 15, no. 2 (2016): 1-19. 7 B. Talat, Choosing the "Smartest" Embryo: Embryo Profiling and the Future of Reproductive Technology, (Canadian Institute for Genomics and Society, March 14, 2019), https://www.genomicsandsociety.com/post/choosing-the-smartest-embryo-embryo-profiling-and-the-future-of-reproductive-technology8 E. Parens, S. P. Applebaum, and W. Chung, "Embryo editing for higher IQ is a fantasy. Embryo profiling for it is almost here.," Statnews, February 12, 2019. 9 T. Pagnaer et al., "Polygenic risk scoring of human embryos: a qualitative study of media coverage," BMC Medical Ethics 22, no. 1 (2021): 1-8. 10 E. L. de Zeeuw et al., "Polygenic scores associated with educational attainment in adults predict educational achievement and ADHD symptoms in children," American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics 165b, no. 6 (2014): 51020. 11 A. Okbay et al., "Genetic variants associated with subjective well-being, depressive symptoms, and neuroticism identified through genome-wide analyses," Nature Genetics 48, no. 6 (2016): 624-33. 12 F. Ray, "Embryo Selection From Polygenic Risk Scores Enters Market as Clinical Value Remains Unproven," (December 22, 2021). https://www.genomeweb.com/sequencing/embryo-selection-polygenic-risk-scores-enters-market-clinical-value-remainsunproven#.YeVWzvhOk2w13 J. Savulescu, "The moral case for eugenics?," IAI News, September 28, 2021, https://iai.tv/articles/the-moral-case-for-eugenicsauid-1916. 14 S. Munday and J. Savulescu, "Three models for the regulation of polygenic scores in reproduction," Journal of Medical Ethics 47, no. 12 (2021): 1-9. 15 F. Forzano et al., "The use of polygenic risk scores in pre-implantation genetic testing: an unproven, unethical practice," European Journal of Human Genetics (2021). 16 Forzano et al., 1-3.; P. Turley et al., "Problems with Using Polygenic Scores to Select Embryos," The New England Jourmal of Medicine 385, no. 1 (2021): 78-86. 17 N. J. Wald and R. Old, "The illusion of polygenic disease risk prediction," Genetics in Medicine 21, no. 8 (2019): 1705-7. 18 M. J. Sandel, "The case against perfection: what's wrong with designer children, bionic athletes, and genetic engineering," Atlantic Monthly 292, no. 3 (2004): 50-4, 56-60, 62. 19 H. Haidar, "Polygenic Risk Scores to Select Embryos: A Need for Societal Debate," Impact Ethics (blog), November 3, 2021, https://impactethics.ca/2021/11/03/polygenic-risk-scores-to-select-embryos-a-need-for-societal-debate/. 20 Pagnaer et al., " 1-8. 21 Forzano et al., 1-8. 22 Turley et al., 78-86. 23 P. Ball, "Polygenic screening of embryos is here, but is it ethical?," The Guardian, October 17, 2021. 24 W. K. Davis, "A New Kind of Embryo Genetics Screening Makes Big Promises on Little Evidence," Slate, July 23, 2021, https://slate.com/technology/2021/07/prs-model-snp-genetic-screening-counseling.html. 25 J. Savulescu, "Procreative beneficence: why we should select the best children," Bioethics 15, no. 5-6 (2001): 413-26. 26 Pagnaer et al., 1-8.

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Abstract:

Imagine this historical scene, if you will. It is 1892, and you are up in the gallery at Her Majesty’s Theatre in Sydney, taking in an English burlesque. The people around you have just found out that Alice Leamar will not be performing her famed turn in Ta-ra-ra-boom-de-ay tonight, a high-kicking Can-Canesque number, very much the dance du jour. Your fellow audience members are none too pleased about this – they are shouting, and stamping the heels of their boots so loudly the whole theatre resounds with the noise. Most people in the expensive seats below look up in the direction of the gallery with a familiar blend of fear and loathing. The rough ‘gods’ up there are nearly always restless, more this time than usual. The uproar fulfils its purpose, though, because tomorrow night, Leamar’s act will be reinstated: the ‘gods’ will have their way (Bulletin, 1 October 1892). Another scene now, this time at the Newtown Bridge Theatre in Sydney, shortly after the turn of the twentieth century. A comedian is trying a new routine for the crowd, but no one seems much impressed so far. A few discontented rumbles begin at first – ‘I want to go home’, says one wag, and then another – and soon these gain momentum, so that almost everyone is caught up in an ecstasy of roisterous abuse. A burly ‘chucker out’ appears, trying to eject some of the loudest hecklers, and a fully-fledged punch-up ensues (Djubal 19, 23; Cheshire 86). Eventually, one or two men are made to leave – but so too is the hapless comedian, evicted by derisive howls from the stage. The scenes I have just described show that audience interaction was a key feature in late-nineteenth century popular theatre, and in some cases even persisted into the following century. Obviously, there was no formal voting mechanism used during these performances à la contemporary shows like Idol. But rowdy practises amounted to a kind of audience ‘vote’ nonetheless, through which people decided those entertainers they wanted to see and those they emphatically did not. In this paper, I intend to use these bald parallels between Victorian audience practices and new-millennium viewer-voting to investigate claims about the links between democracy and plebiscitary entertainment. The rise of voting for pleasure in televised contests and online polls is widely attended by debate about democracy (e.g. Andrejevic; Coleman; Hartley, “Reality”). The most hyped commentary on this count evokes a teleological assumption – that western history is inexorably moving towards direct democracy. This view becomes hard to sustain when we consider the extent to which the direct expression of audience views was a feature of Victorian popular entertainment, and that these participatory practices were largely suppressed by the turn of the twentieth century. Old audience practices also allow us to question some of the uses of the term ‘direct democracy’ in new media commentary. Descriptions of voting for pleasure as part of a growth towards direct democracy are often made to celebrate rather than investigate plebiscitary forms. They elide the fact that direct democracy is a vexed political ideal. And they limit our discussion of voting for leisure and fun. Ultimately, arguing back and forth about whether viewer-voting is democratic stops us from more interesting explorations of this emerging cultural phenomenon. ‘To a degree that would be unimaginable to theatregoers today’, says historian Robert Allen, ‘early nineteenth-century audiences controlled what went on at the theatre’. The so-called ‘shirt-sleeve’ crowd in the cheapest seats of theatrical venues were habitually given to hissing, shouting, and even throwing objects in order to evict performers during the course of a show. The control exerted by the peanut-chomping gallery was certainly apparent in the mid-century burlesques Allen writes about (55). It was also apparent in minstrel, variety and music hall productions until around the turn of the century. Audience members in the galleries of variety theatres and music halls regularly engaged in the pleasure of voicing their aesthetic preferences. Sometimes comic interjectors from among them even drew more laughs than the performers on stage. ‘We went there not as spectators but as performers’, as an English music-hall habitué put it (Bailey 154). In more downmarket venues such as Sydney’s Newtown Bridge Theatre, these participatory practices continued into the early 1900s. Boisterous audience practices came under sustained attack in the late-Victorian era. A series of measures were taken by authorities, theatre managers and social commentators to wrest the control of popular performances from those in theatre pits and galleries. These included restricting the sale of alcohol in theatre venues, employing brawn in the form of ‘chuckers out’, and darkening auditoriums, so that only the stage was illuminated and the audience thus de-emphasised (Allen 51–61; Bailey 157–68; Waterhouse 127, 138–43). They also included a relentless public critique of those engaging in heckling behaviours, thus displaying their ‘littleness of mind’ (Age, 6 Sep. 1876). The intensity of attacks on rowdy audience participation suggests that symbolic factors were at play in late-Victorian attempts to enforce decorous conduct at the theatre. The last half of the century was, after all, an era of intense debate about the qualities necessary for democratic citizenship. The suffrage was being dramatically expanded during this time, so that it encompassed the vast majority of white men – and by the early twentieth century, many white women as well. In Australia, the prelude to federation also involved debate about the type of democracy to be adopted. Should it be republican? Should it enfranchise all men and women; all people, or only white ones? At stake in these debates were the characteristics and subjectivities one needed to possess before being deemed capable of enfranchisem*nt. To be worthy of the vote, as of other democratic privileges, one needed to be what Toby Miller has called a ‘well-tempered’ subject at the turn of the twentieth century (Miller; Joyce 4). One needed to be carefully deliberative and self-watching, to avoid being ‘savage’, ‘uncivilised’, emotive – all qualities which riotous audience members (like black people and women) were thought not to possess (Lake). This is why the growing respectability of popular theatre is so often considered a key feature of the modernisation of popular culture. Civil and respectful audience behaviours went hand in hand with liberal-democratic concepts of the well-tempered citizen. Working-class culture in late nineteenth-century England has famously (and notoriously) been described as a ‘culture of consolation’: an escapist desire for fun based on a fatalistic acceptance of under-privilege and social discrimination (Jones). This idea does not do justice to the range of hopes and efforts to create a better society among workingpeople at the time. But it still captures the motivation behind most unruly audience behaviours: a gleeful kind of resistance or ‘culture jamming’ which viewed disruption and uproar as ends in themselves, without the hope that they would be productive of improved social conditions. Whether or not theatrical rowdiness served a solely consolatory purpose for the shirt-sleeve crowd, it certainly evoked a sharp fear of disorderly exuberance in mainstream society. Anxieties about violent working-class uprisings leading to the institution of mob rule were a characteristic of the late-nineteenth century, often making their way into fiction (Brantlinger). Roisterous behaviours in popular theatres resonated with the concerns expressed in works such as Caesar’s Column (Donnelly), feeding on a long association between the theatre and misrule. These fears obviously stand in stark contrast to the ebullient commentary surrounding interactive entertainment today. Over-oxygenated rhetoric about the democratic potential of cyberspace was of course a feature of new media commentary at the beginning of the 1990s (for a critique of such rhetoric see Meikle 33–42; Grossman). Current helium-giddy claims about digital technologies as ‘democratising’ reprise this cyberhype (Andrejevic 12–15, 23–8; Jenkins and Thornburn). One recent example of upbeat talk about plebiscitary formats as direct democracy is John Hartley’s contribution to the edited collection, Politicotainment (Hartley, “Reality”). There are now a range of TV shows and online formats, he says, which offer audiences the opportunity to directly express their views. The development of these entertainment forms are part of a movement towards a ‘direct open network’ in global media culture (3). They are also part of a macro historical shift: a movement ‘down the value chain of meaning’ which has taken place over the past few centuries (Hartley, “Value Chain”). Hartley’s notion of a ‘value chain of meaning’ is an application of business analysis to media and cultural studies. In business, a value chain is what links the producer/originator, via commodity/distribution, to the consumer. In the same way, Hartley says, one might speak of a symbolic value chain moving from an author/producer, via the text, to the audience/consumer. Much of western history may indeed be understood as a movement along this chain. In pre-modern times, meaning resided in the author. The Divine Author, God, was regarded as the source of all meaning. In the modern period, ‘after Milton and Johnson’, meaning was located in texts. Experts observed the properties of a text or other object, and by this means discovered its meaning. In ‘the contemporary period’, however – the period roughly following the Second World War – meaning has overwhelming come to be located with audiences or consumers (Hartley, “Value Chain” 131–35). It is in this context, Hartley tells us, that the plebiscite is coming to the fore. As a means of allowing audiences to directly represent their own choices, the plebiscite is part of a new paradigm taking shape, as global culture moves away from the modern epoch and its text-dominated paradigm (Hartley, “Reality” 1–3). Talk of a symbolic value chain is a self-conscious example of the logic of business/cultural partnership currently circulating in neo-liberal discourse. It is also an example of a teleological understanding of history, through which the past few centuries are presented as part of a linear progression towards direct democracy. This teleology works well with the up-tempo talk of television as ‘democratainment’ in Hartley’s earlier work (Hartley, Uses of Television). Western history is essentially a triumphant progression, he implies, from the Dark Ages, to representative democracy, to the enlightened and direct ‘consumer democracy’ unfolding around us today (Hartley, “Reality” 47). Teleological assumptions are always suspect from an historical point of view. For a start, casting the modern period as one in which meaning resided overwhelmingly in the text fails to consider the culture of popular performance flourishing before the twentieth century. Popular theatrical forms were far more significant to ordinary people of the nineteenth century than the notions of empirical or textual analysis cultivated in elite circles. Burlesques, minstrel-shows, music hall and variety productions all took a playful approach to their texts, altering their tone and content in line with audience expectations (Chevalier 40). Before the commercialisation of popular theatre in the late-nineteenth century, many theatricals also worked in a relatively open-ended way. At concert saloons or ‘free-and-easies’ (pubs where musical performances were offered), amateur singers volunteered their services, stepping out from the audience to perform an act or two and then disappearing into it again (Joyce 206). As a precursor to TV talent contests and ‘open mic’ comedy sessions today, many theatrical managers held amateur nights in which would-be professionals tried their luck before a restless crowd, with a contract awarded to performers drawing the loudest applause (Watson 5). Each of these considerations challenge the view that open participatory networks are the expression of an historical process through which meaning has only recently come to reside with audiences and consumers. Another reason for suspecting teleological notions about democracy is that it proceeds as if Foucauldian analysis did not exist. Characterising history as a process of democratisation tends to equate democracy with openness and freedom in an uncritical way. It glosses over the fact that representative democracy involved the repression of directly participatory practices and unruly social groups. More pertinently, it ignores critiques of direct democracy. Even if there are positive aspects to the re-emergence of participatory practices among audiences today, there are still real problems with direct democracy as a political ideal. It would be fairly easy to make the case that rowdy Victorian audiences engaged in ‘direct democratic’ practices during the course of a variety show or burlesque. The ‘gods’ in Victorian galleries exulted in expressing their preferences: evicting lack-lustre comics and demanding more of other performers. It would also be easy to valorise these practices as examples of the kind of culture-jamming I referred to earlier – as forms of resistance to the tyranny of well-tempered citizenship gaining sway at the time. Given the often hysterical attacks directed at unruly audiences, there is an obvious satisfaction to be had from observing the reinstatement of Ta-ra-ra-boom-de-ay at Her Majesty’s Theatre, or in the pleasure that working-class audiences derived from ‘calling the tune’. The same kind of satisfaction is not to be had, however, when observing direct democracy in action on YouTube, or during a season of Dancing with the Stars, or some other kind of plebiscitary TV. The expression of audience preferences in this context hardly carries the subversive connotations of informal evictions during a late-Victorian music-hall show. Viewer-voting today is indeed dominated by a rhetoric of partnership which centres on audience participation, rather than a notion of opposition between producers and audiences (Jenkins). The terrain of plebiscitary entertainment is very different now from the terrain of popular culture described by Stuart Hall in the 1980s – let alone as it stood in the 1890s, during Alice Leamar’s tour. Most commentary on plebiscitary TV avoids talk of ‘cultural struggle’ (Hall 235) and instead adopts a language of collaboration and of people ‘having a ball’ (Neville; Hartley, “Reality” 3). The extent to which contemporary plebiscites are managed by what Hartley calls the ‘plebiscitary industries’ evokes one of the most powerful criticisms made against direct democracy. That is, it evokes the view that direct democracy allows commercial interests to set the terms of public participation in decision-making, and thus to influence its outcomes (Barber 36; Moore 55–56). There is obviously big money to be made from plebiscitary TV. The advertising blitz which takes place during viewer-voting programs, and the vote-rigging scandals so often surrounding them make this clear. These considerations highlight the fact that public involvement in a plebiscitary process is not something to make a song and dance about unless broad involvement first takes place in deciding the issues open for determination by plebiscite, and the way in which these issues are framed. In the absence of this kind of broad participation, engagement in plebiscitary forms serves a solely consolatory function, offering the pleasures of viewer-voting as a substitute for substantive involvement in cultural creation and political change. Another critique sometimes made against direct democracy is that it makes an easy vehicle for prejudice (Barber 36–7). This was certainly the case in Victorian theatres, where it was common for Anglo gallery-members to heckle female and non-white performers in an intimidatory way. A group of American vaudeville performers called the Cherry Sisters certainly experienced this phenomenon in the early 1900s. The Cherry Sisters were defiantly unglamorous middle-aged women in a period when female performers were increasingly expected to display scantily-clad youthful figures on stage. As a consequence, they were embroiled in a number of near-riots in which male audience members hurled abuse and heavy objects from the galleries, and in some cases chased them into the street to physically assault them there (Pittinger 76–77). Such incidents give us a glimpse of the dark face of direct democracy. In some cases, the direct expression of popular views becomes an attack on diversity, leading to the kind of violent mêlée experienced either by the Cherry Sisters or the Middle Eastern people attacked on Sydney’s Cronulla Beach at the end of 2005. ‘Democracy’ is always an obviously politically loaded term when used in debates about new media. It is frequently used to imply that particular cultural or technological forms are inherently liberatory and inclusive. As Graeme Turner points out, reality TV has been celebrated as ‘democratic’ in this way. Only rarely, however, is there an attempt to argue why this is the case – to show how viewer-voting formats actually serve a democratic agenda. It was for this reason that Turner argued that the inclusion of ordinary people on reality TV should be understood as demotic rather than democratic (Turner, Understanding Celebrity 82–5; Turner, “Mass Production”). Ultimately, however, it is immaterial whether one uses the term ‘demotic’ or ‘direct democratic’ to describe the growth of plebiscitary entertainment. What is important is that we avoid making inflated claims about the direct expression of audience views, using the term ‘democratic’ to give an unduly celebratory spin to the political complexities involved. People may indeed be having a ball as they take part in online polls or choose what they want to watch on YouTube or shout at the TV during an episode of Idol. The ‘participatory enthusiasm’ that fans feel watching a show like Big Brother may also have lessons for those interested in making parliamentary process more responsive to people’s interests and needs (Coleman 458). But the development of plebiscitary forms is not inherently democratic in the sense that Turner suggests the term should be used – that is, it does not of itself serve a liberatory or socially inclusive agenda. Nor does it lead to substantive participation in cultural and political processes. In the end, it seems to me that we need to move beyond the discussion of plebiscitary entertainment in terms of democracy. The whole concept of democracy as the yardstick against which new media should be measured is highly problematic. Not only is direct democracy a vexed political ideal to start off with – it also leads commentators to take predictable positions when debating its relationship to new technologies and cultural forms. Some turn to hype, others to critique, and the result often appears as a mere restatement of the commentators’ political inclinations rather than a useful investigation of the developments at hand. Some of the most intriguing aspects of plebiscitary entertainments are left unexplored if we remain preoccupied with democracy. One might well investigate the re-introduction of studio audiences and participatory audience practices, for example, as a nostalgia for the interactivity experienced in live theatres such as the Newtown Bridge in the early twentieth century. It certainly seems to me that a retro impulse informs some of the developments in televised stand-up comedy in recent years. This was obviously the case for Paul McDermott’s The Side Show on Australian television in 2007, with its nod to the late-Victorian or early twentieth-century fairground and its live-theatrical vibe. More relevantly here, it also seems to be the case for American viewer-voting programs such as Last Comic Standing and the Comedy Channel’s Open Mic Fight. Further, reviews of programs such as Idol sometimes emphasise the emotional engagement arising out of their combination of viewer-voting and live performance as a harking-back to the good old days when entertainment was about being real (Neville). One misses this nostalgia associated with plebiscitary entertainments if bound to a teleological assumption that they form part of an ineluctable progression towards the New and the Free. Perhaps, then, it is time to pay more attention to the historical roots of viewer-voting formats, to think about the way that new media is sometimes about a re-invention of the old, trying to escape the recurrent back-and-forthing of debate about their relationship to progress and democracy. References Allen, Robert C. Horrible Prettiness: Burlesque and American Culture .Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991. Andrejevic, Mark. Reality TV: The Work of Being Watched. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 2004. Bailey, Peter. Leisure and Class in Victorian England: Rational Recreation and the Contest for Control, 1830–1885. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1978. Barber, Benjamin R. Strong Democracy: Participatory Politics for a New Age. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984. ———. “Which Technology and Which Democracy?” Democracy and New Media. Eds. Henry Jenkins and David Thorburn. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 2003. 33–48. Brantlinger, Patrick, Rule of Darkness: British Literature and Imperialism, 1830–1914. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1988. Cheshire, D. F. Music Hall in Britain. Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1974. Chevalier, Albert. Before I Forget: The Autobiography of a Chevalier d’Industrie. London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1901. Coleman, Stephen. “How the Other Half Votes: Big Brother Viewers and the 2005 General Election”. International Journal of Cultural Studies 9.4 (2006): 457–79. Djubal, Clay. “From Minstrel Tenor to Vaudeville Showman: Harry Clay, ‘A Friend of the Australian Performer’”. Australasian Drama Studies 34 (April 1999): 10–24. Donnelly, Ignatius. Caesar’s Column: A Story of the Twentieth Century. London: Sampson Low, Marston and Co., 1891. Grossman, Lawrence. The Electronic Republic: Reshaping Democracy in the Information Age. New York: Penguin, 1995. Hall, Stuart. “Notes on Deconstructing the ‘Popular’”. People’s History and Socialist Theory. Ed. Raphael Samuel. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1981. 227–49. Hartley, John, The Uses of Television. London: Routledge, 1999. ———. “‘Reality’ and the Plebiscite”. Politoctainment: Television’s Take on the Real. Ed. Kristina Riegert. New York: Peter Lang Publishing, 2006. http://www.cci.edu.au/hartley/downloads/Plebiscite%20(Riegert%20chapter) %20revised%20FINAL%20%5BFeb%2014%5D.pdf. ———. “The ‘Value-Chain of Meaning’ and the New Economy”. International Journal of Cultural Studies 7.1 (2004): 129–41. Jenkins, Henry. “The Cultural Logic of Media Convergence”. International Journal of Cultural Studies 7.1 (2004): 33–43. ———, and David Thornburn. “Introduction: The Digital Revolution, the Informed Citizen, and the Culture of Democracy”. Democracy and New Media. Eds. Henry Jenkins and David Thorburn. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2003. 1–20. Jones, Gareth Stedman. ‘Working-Class Culture and Working-Class Politics in London, 1870-1900: Notes on the Remaking of a Working Class’. Languages of Class: Studies in English Working-Class History, 1832–1982. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. 179–238. Joyce, Patrick. The Rule of Freedom: Liberalism and the Modern City. London: Verso, 2003. Lake, Marilyn. “White Man’s Country: The Trans-National History of a National Project”. Australian Historical Studies 122 ( 2003): 346–63. Meikle, Graham. Future Active: Media Activism and the Internet. London: Routledge, 2002. Miller, Toby. The Well-Tempered Self: Citizenship, Culture and the Postmodern Subject. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1993. Moore, Richard K. “Democracy and Cyberspace”. Digital Democracy: Discourse and Decision Making in the Information Age. Eds. Barry Hague and Brian D. Loader. London and New York: Routledge, 1999. 39–59. Neville, Richard. “Crass, Corny, But Still a Woodstock Moment for a New Generation”. Sydney Morning Herald, 23 November 2004. Pittinger, Peach R. “The Cherry Sisters in Early Vaudeville: Performing a Failed Femininity”. Theatre History Studies 24 (2004): 73–97. Turner, Graeme. Understanding Celebrity. London: Sage, 2004. ———. “The Mass Production of Celebrity: ‘Celetoids’, Reality TV and the ‘Demotic Turn’”. International Journal of Cultural Studies 9.2 (2006): 153–165. Waterhouse, Richard. From Minstrel Show to Vaudeville: The Australian Popular Stage, 1788–1914. Sydney: New South Wales University Press, 1990. Watson, Bobby. Fifty Years Behind the Scenes. Sydney: Slater, 1924. Citation reference for this article MLA Style Bellanta, Melissa. "Voting for Pleasure, Or a View from a Victorian Theatre Gallery." M/C Journal 10.6/11.1 (2008). echo date('d M. Y'); ?> <http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0804/02-bellanta.php>. APA Style Bellanta, M. (Apr. 2008) "Voting for Pleasure, Or a View from a Victorian Theatre Gallery," M/C Journal, 10(6)/11(1). Retrieved echo date('d M. Y'); ?> from <http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0804/02-bellanta.php>.

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Abstract:

Imagine this historical scene, if you will. It is 1892, and you are up in the gallery at Her Majesty’s Theatre in Sydney, taking in an English burlesque. The people around you have just found out that Alice Leamar will not be performing her famed turn in Ta-ra-ra-boom-de-ay tonight, a high-kicking Can-Canesque number, very much the dance du jour. Your fellow audience members are none too pleased about this – they are shouting, and stamping the heels of their boots so loudly the whole theatre resounds with the noise. Most people in the expensive seats below look up in the direction of the gallery with a familiar blend of fear and loathing. The rough ‘gods’ up there are nearly always restless, more this time than usual. The uproar fulfils its purpose, though, because tomorrow night, Leamar’s act will be reinstated: the ‘gods’ will have their way (Bulletin, 1 October 1892). Another scene now, this time at the Newtown Bridge Theatre in Sydney, shortly after the turn of the twentieth century. A comedian is trying a new routine for the crowd, but no one seems much impressed so far. A few discontented rumbles begin at first – ‘I want to go home’, says one wag, and then another – and soon these gain momentum, so that almost everyone is caught up in an ecstasy of roisterous abuse. A burly ‘chucker out’ appears, trying to eject some of the loudest hecklers, and a fully-fledged punch-up ensues (Djubal 19, 23; Cheshire 86). Eventually, one or two men are made to leave – but so too is the hapless comedian, evicted by derisive howls from the stage. The scenes I have just described show that audience interaction was a key feature in late-nineteenth century popular theatre, and in some cases even persisted into the following century. Obviously, there was no formal voting mechanism used during these performances à la contemporary shows like Idol. But rowdy practises amounted to a kind of audience ‘vote’ nonetheless, through which people decided those entertainers they wanted to see and those they emphatically did not. In this paper, I intend to use these bald parallels between Victorian audience practices and new-millennium viewer-voting to investigate claims about the links between democracy and plebiscitary entertainment. The rise of voting for pleasure in televised contests and online polls is widely attended by debate about democracy (e.g. Andrejevic; Coleman; Hartley, “Reality”). The most hyped commentary on this count evokes a teleological assumption – that western history is inexorably moving towards direct democracy. This view becomes hard to sustain when we consider the extent to which the direct expression of audience views was a feature of Victorian popular entertainment, and that these participatory practices were largely suppressed by the turn of the twentieth century. Old audience practices also allow us to question some of the uses of the term ‘direct democracy’ in new media commentary. Descriptions of voting for pleasure as part of a growth towards direct democracy are often made to celebrate rather than investigate plebiscitary forms. They elide the fact that direct democracy is a vexed political ideal. And they limit our discussion of voting for leisure and fun. Ultimately, arguing back and forth about whether viewer-voting is democratic stops us from more interesting explorations of this emerging cultural phenomenon. ‘To a degree that would be unimaginable to theatregoers today’, says historian Robert Allen, ‘early nineteenth-century audiences controlled what went on at the theatre’. The so-called ‘shirt-sleeve’ crowd in the cheapest seats of theatrical venues were habitually given to hissing, shouting, and even throwing objects in order to evict performers during the course of a show. The control exerted by the peanut-chomping gallery was certainly apparent in the mid-century burlesques Allen writes about (55). It was also apparent in minstrel, variety and music hall productions until around the turn of the century. Audience members in the galleries of variety theatres and music halls regularly engaged in the pleasure of voicing their aesthetic preferences. Sometimes comic interjectors from among them even drew more laughs than the performers on stage. ‘We went there not as spectators but as performers’, as an English music-hall habitué put it (Bailey 154). In more downmarket venues such as Sydney’s Newtown Bridge Theatre, these participatory practices continued into the early 1900s. Boisterous audience practices came under sustained attack in the late-Victorian era. A series of measures were taken by authorities, theatre managers and social commentators to wrest the control of popular performances from those in theatre pits and galleries. These included restricting the sale of alcohol in theatre venues, employing brawn in the form of ‘chuckers out’, and darkening auditoriums, so that only the stage was illuminated and the audience thus de-emphasised (Allen 51–61; Bailey 157–68; Waterhouse 127, 138–43). They also included a relentless public critique of those engaging in heckling behaviours, thus displaying their ‘littleness of mind’ (Age, 6 Sep. 1876). The intensity of attacks on rowdy audience participation suggests that symbolic factors were at play in late-Victorian attempts to enforce decorous conduct at the theatre. The last half of the century was, after all, an era of intense debate about the qualities necessary for democratic citizenship. The suffrage was being dramatically expanded during this time, so that it encompassed the vast majority of white men – and by the early twentieth century, many white women as well. In Australia, the prelude to federation also involved debate about the type of democracy to be adopted. Should it be republican? Should it enfranchise all men and women; all people, or only white ones? At stake in these debates were the characteristics and subjectivities one needed to possess before being deemed capable of enfranchisem*nt. To be worthy of the vote, as of other democratic privileges, one needed to be what Toby Miller has called a ‘well-tempered’ subject at the turn of the twentieth century (Miller; Joyce 4). One needed to be carefully deliberative and self-watching, to avoid being ‘savage’, ‘uncivilised’, emotive – all qualities which riotous audience members (like black people and women) were thought not to possess (Lake). This is why the growing respectability of popular theatre is so often considered a key feature of the modernisation of popular culture. Civil and respectful audience behaviours went hand in hand with liberal-democratic concepts of the well-tempered citizen. Working-class culture in late nineteenth-century England has famously (and notoriously) been described as a ‘culture of consolation’: an escapist desire for fun based on a fatalistic acceptance of under-privilege and social discrimination (Jones). This idea does not do justice to the range of hopes and efforts to create a better society among workingpeople at the time. But it still captures the motivation behind most unruly audience behaviours: a gleeful kind of resistance or ‘culture jamming’ which viewed disruption and uproar as ends in themselves, without the hope that they would be productive of improved social conditions. Whether or not theatrical rowdiness served a solely consolatory purpose for the shirt-sleeve crowd, it certainly evoked a sharp fear of disorderly exuberance in mainstream society. Anxieties about violent working-class uprisings leading to the institution of mob rule were a characteristic of the late-nineteenth century, often making their way into fiction (Brantlinger). Roisterous behaviours in popular theatres resonated with the concerns expressed in works such as Caesar’s Column (Donnelly), feeding on a long association between the theatre and misrule. These fears obviously stand in stark contrast to the ebullient commentary surrounding interactive entertainment today. Over-oxygenated rhetoric about the democratic potential of cyberspace was of course a feature of new media commentary at the beginning of the 1990s (for a critique of such rhetoric see Meikle 33–42; Grossman). Current helium-giddy claims about digital technologies as ‘democratising’ reprise this cyberhype (Andrejevic 12–15, 23–8; Jenkins and Thornburn). One recent example of upbeat talk about plebiscitary formats as direct democracy is John Hartley’s contribution to the edited collection, Politicotainment (Hartley, “Reality”). There are now a range of TV shows and online formats, he says, which offer audiences the opportunity to directly express their views. The development of these entertainment forms are part of a movement towards a ‘direct open network’ in global media culture (3). They are also part of a macro historical shift: a movement ‘down the value chain of meaning’ which has taken place over the past few centuries (Hartley, “Value Chain”). Hartley’s notion of a ‘value chain of meaning’ is an application of business analysis to media and cultural studies. In business, a value chain is what links the producer/originator, via commodity/distribution, to the consumer. In the same way, Hartley says, one might speak of a symbolic value chain moving from an author/producer, via the text, to the audience/consumer. Much of western history may indeed be understood as a movement along this chain. In pre-modern times, meaning resided in the author. The Divine Author, God, was regarded as the source of all meaning. In the modern period, ‘after Milton and Johnson’, meaning was located in texts. Experts observed the properties of a text or other object, and by this means discovered its meaning. In ‘the contemporary period’, however – the period roughly following the Second World War – meaning has overwhelming come to be located with audiences or consumers (Hartley, “Value Chain” 131–35). It is in this context, Hartley tells us, that the plebiscite is coming to the fore. As a means of allowing audiences to directly represent their own choices, the plebiscite is part of a new paradigm taking shape, as global culture moves away from the modern epoch and its text-dominated paradigm (Hartley, “Reality” 1–3). Talk of a symbolic value chain is a self-conscious example of the logic of business/cultural partnership currently circulating in neo-liberal discourse. It is also an example of a teleological understanding of history, through which the past few centuries are presented as part of a linear progression towards direct democracy. This teleology works well with the up-tempo talk of television as ‘democratainment’ in Hartley’s earlier work (Hartley, Uses of Television). Western history is essentially a triumphant progression, he implies, from the Dark Ages, to representative democracy, to the enlightened and direct ‘consumer democracy’ unfolding around us today (Hartley, “Reality” 47). Teleological assumptions are always suspect from an historical point of view. For a start, casting the modern period as one in which meaning resided overwhelmingly in the text fails to consider the culture of popular performance flourishing before the twentieth century. Popular theatrical forms were far more significant to ordinary people of the nineteenth century than the notions of empirical or textual analysis cultivated in elite circles. Burlesques, minstrel-shows, music hall and variety productions all took a playful approach to their texts, altering their tone and content in line with audience expectations (Chevalier 40). Before the commercialisation of popular theatre in the late-nineteenth century, many theatricals also worked in a relatively open-ended way. At concert saloons or ‘free-and-easies’ (pubs where musical performances were offered), amateur singers volunteered their services, stepping out from the audience to perform an act or two and then disappearing into it again (Joyce 206). As a precursor to TV talent contests and ‘open mic’ comedy sessions today, many theatrical managers held amateur nights in which would-be professionals tried their luck before a restless crowd, with a contract awarded to performers drawing the loudest applause (Watson 5). Each of these considerations challenge the view that open participatory networks are the expression of an historical process through which meaning has only recently come to reside with audiences and consumers. Another reason for suspecting teleological notions about democracy is that it proceeds as if Foucauldian analysis did not exist. Characterising history as a process of democratisation tends to equate democracy with openness and freedom in an uncritical way. It glosses over the fact that representative democracy involved the repression of directly participatory practices and unruly social groups. More pertinently, it ignores critiques of direct democracy. Even if there are positive aspects to the re-emergence of participatory practices among audiences today, there are still real problems with direct democracy as a political ideal. It would be fairly easy to make the case that rowdy Victorian audiences engaged in ‘direct democratic’ practices during the course of a variety show or burlesque. The ‘gods’ in Victorian galleries exulted in expressing their preferences: evicting lack-lustre comics and demanding more of other performers. It would also be easy to valorise these practices as examples of the kind of culture-jamming I referred to earlier – as forms of resistance to the tyranny of well-tempered citizenship gaining sway at the time. Given the often hysterical attacks directed at unruly audiences, there is an obvious satisfaction to be had from observing the reinstatement of Ta-ra-ra-boom-de-ay at Her Majesty’s Theatre, or in the pleasure that working-class audiences derived from ‘calling the tune’. The same kind of satisfaction is not to be had, however, when observing direct democracy in action on YouTube, or during a season of Dancing with the Stars, or some other kind of plebiscitary TV. The expression of audience preferences in this context hardly carries the subversive connotations of informal evictions during a late-Victorian music-hall show. Viewer-voting today is indeed dominated by a rhetoric of partnership which centres on audience participation, rather than a notion of opposition between producers and audiences (Jenkins). The terrain of plebiscitary entertainment is very different now from the terrain of popular culture described by Stuart Hall in the 1980s – let alone as it stood in the 1890s, during Alice Leamar’s tour. Most commentary on plebiscitary TV avoids talk of ‘cultural struggle’ (Hall 235) and instead adopts a language of collaboration and of people ‘having a ball’ (Neville; Hartley, “Reality” 3). The extent to which contemporary plebiscites are managed by what Hartley calls the ‘plebiscitary industries’ evokes one of the most powerful criticisms made against direct democracy. That is, it evokes the view that direct democracy allows commercial interests to set the terms of public participation in decision-making, and thus to influence its outcomes (Barber 36; Moore 55–56). There is obviously big money to be made from plebiscitary TV. The advertising blitz which takes place during viewer-voting programs, and the vote-rigging scandals so often surrounding them make this clear. These considerations highlight the fact that public involvement in a plebiscitary process is not something to make a song and dance about unless broad involvement first takes place in deciding the issues open for determination by plebiscite, and the way in which these issues are framed. In the absence of this kind of broad participation, engagement in plebiscitary forms serves a solely consolatory function, offering the pleasures of viewer-voting as a substitute for substantive involvement in cultural creation and political change. Another critique sometimes made against direct democracy is that it makes an easy vehicle for prejudice (Barber 36–7). This was certainly the case in Victorian theatres, where it was common for Anglo gallery-members to heckle female and non-white performers in an intimidatory way. A group of American vaudeville performers called the Cherry Sisters certainly experienced this phenomenon in the early 1900s. The Cherry Sisters were defiantly unglamorous middle-aged women in a period when female performers were increasingly expected to display scantily-clad youthful figures on stage. As a consequence, they were embroiled in a number of near-riots in which male audience members hurled abuse and heavy objects from the galleries, and in some cases chased them into the street to physically assault them there (Pittinger 76–77). Such incidents give us a glimpse of the dark face of direct democracy. In some cases, the direct expression of popular views becomes an attack on diversity, leading to the kind of violent mêlée experienced either by the Cherry Sisters or the Middle Eastern people attacked on Sydney’s Cronulla Beach at the end of 2005. ‘Democracy’ is always an obviously politically loaded term when used in debates about new media. It is frequently used to imply that particular cultural or technological forms are inherently liberatory and inclusive. As Graeme Turner points out, reality TV has been celebrated as ‘democratic’ in this way. Only rarely, however, is there an attempt to argue why this is the case – to show how viewer-voting formats actually serve a democratic agenda. It was for this reason that Turner argued that the inclusion of ordinary people on reality TV should be understood as demotic rather than democratic (Turner, Understanding Celebrity 82–5; Turner, “Mass Production”). Ultimately, however, it is immaterial whether one uses the term ‘demotic’ or ‘direct democratic’ to describe the growth of plebiscitary entertainment. What is important is that we avoid making inflated claims about the direct expression of audience views, using the term ‘democratic’ to give an unduly celebratory spin to the political complexities involved. People may indeed be having a ball as they take part in online polls or choose what they want to watch on YouTube or shout at the TV during an episode of Idol. The ‘participatory enthusiasm’ that fans feel watching a show like Big Brother may also have lessons for those interested in making parliamentary process more responsive to people’s interests and needs (Coleman 458). But the development of plebiscitary forms is not inherently democratic in the sense that Turner suggests the term should be used – that is, it does not of itself serve a liberatory or socially inclusive agenda. Nor does it lead to substantive participation in cultural and political processes. In the end, it seems to me that we need to move beyond the discussion of plebiscitary entertainment in terms of democracy. The whole concept of democracy as the yardstick against which new media should be measured is highly problematic. Not only is direct democracy a vexed political ideal to start off with – it also leads commentators to take predictable positions when debating its relationship to new technologies and cultural forms. Some turn to hype, others to critique, and the result often appears as a mere restatement of the commentators’ political inclinations rather than a useful investigation of the developments at hand. Some of the most intriguing aspects of plebiscitary entertainments are left unexplored if we remain preoccupied with democracy. One might well investigate the re-introduction of studio audiences and participatory audience practices, for example, as a nostalgia for the interactivity experienced in live theatres such as the Newtown Bridge in the early twentieth century. It certainly seems to me that a retro impulse informs some of the developments in televised stand-up comedy in recent years. This was obviously the case for Paul McDermott’s The Side Show on Australian television in 2007, with its nod to the late-Victorian or early twentieth-century fairground and its live-theatrical vibe. More relevantly here, it also seems to be the case for American viewer-voting programs such as Last Comic Standing and the Comedy Channel’s Open Mic Fight. Further, reviews of programs such as Idol sometimes emphasise the emotional engagement arising out of their combination of viewer-voting and live performance as a harking-back to the good old days when entertainment was about being real (Neville). One misses this nostalgia associated with plebiscitary entertainments if bound to a teleological assumption that they form part of an ineluctable progression towards the New and the Free. Perhaps, then, it is time to pay more attention to the historical roots of viewer-voting formats, to think about the way that new media is sometimes about a re-invention of the old, trying to escape the recurrent back-and-forthing of debate about their relationship to progress and democracy. References Allen, Robert C. 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